Biomolecules

Carbohydrates
Classification
On the basis of solubility products
• Monosaccharides
• Oligosaccharides
• Polysaccharides
On the basis of taste/structure
• Sugar : Sweet in taste, soluble in water , and crystalline form eg .all monosaccharide's
disaccharides etc
• Non sugar: Tasteless, amorphous, water insoluble
On the basis of reducing action sugars are classified as
• Reducing sugar : capable for reducing Tollens reagent or fehling solutions. Eg all
monosaccharide's, maltose lactose etc.
• Non reducing sugar: not capable for reducing Tollens reagent or Fehling solution eg.
Sucrose ,all polysaccharides
Monosaccharides:
• Polyhydric aldehyde or polyhydric ketone which are not further hydrolyse
• Carbon no ranges from 3-7.
• Aldoses having aldehyde gr. and ketoses having ketonic group.
• Classified as triose, tetrose ,pentose hexose according to no. of carbon atom.
• They all are reducing sugar
• Simple monosaccharide is glyceraldehyde, a triose.
• Ribose a aldopentose
• Glucose aldohexose
• Fructose ketohexose
• Sugars are divided into two families
• D family OH group adjacent to –CH2OH right and L family has OH on
left

• Optical activity in sugar is represented by (+) or (-)

Cyclic structure :

Most of the properties are explained by open chain structure

• But some of the properties like rxn with NaHSO3,having no rxn with
NH3. 2,4 DNP etc are not explained by open chain structure
• D- glucose exist into two stereoisomers -D glucose and
D- glucose which have different melting point and are obtained at
different condition
• Also have different optical rotation.
• When either of two forms of glucose dissolved in water and allowed to
stand ,these get slowly converted into other forms and equilibrium mixture
is formed . This spontaneous change in specific rotation of an optically
active compound with time to an equilibrium value is called muta rotation.

( Fischer projection formulae)

• Howorth proposed a six membered cyclic structure for glucose based
on the structure of heterocyclic compound pyran,
• In free state fructose found in six membered ring structure but in
combined state it is found in furanose form.
Disaccharides
• Sucrose: On hydrolysis sucrose gives – alpha D glucose and beta
D- fructose .These two units are linked by alpha-beta
glycoside linkage between C1of glucose and C2 of fructose
• Maltose It gives two alpha -D glucose unit on hydrolysis .these are
joined by alpha glycosidic linkage between C1of one unit to C4 of next
unit
• Lactose : it gives equi-molar mixture of beta- D glucose and beta -D
glactose. These units are joined by C1of glactose and C4 of glucose
• Polysaccharides:
• Give large no. of monosaccharides unit on hydrolysis
• Amorphous tasteless and water insoluble
• Eg Cellulose, glycogen. Starch
• Starch:
• Polymer of alpha D -glusose has general formula (C6H10O5)n
• Consists of two parts: 10-20% amylose ( linear polymer of alpha D glucose ,water
soluble component) and 80-90% amylopectin (highly branched polymer of alpha D-
glucose, water insoluble component)
• Celluose:
• Structural polysaccharides in plant more than 50% organic matter is cellulose,
• Linear polymer of beta- D glucose (C5H10O5)n
• Glycogen:
• Animal polusaccharides
• Branched polymer of alpha glucose
• Mainly found in liver
 Function of Carbohydrate
• Support the plant structure.
• Store chemical energy in plants in the form of sugar & starch.
• Act as a major source of energy for animals and human beings.
• Act as energy storage in the form of glycogen in animal body.
• Form structural material for cells.
Amino Acids
• The carboxylic acid contaning animo group attached to any carbon
atom other than carboxylic carbon are called amino acid. The
naturally occurring amino acid however contain NH2 group attached
with alpha carbon atom.
• Amino acids are colourless, crystalline, water soluble and in aqueous
solution exists as dipolar ion called zwitterion.
• COOH group loses proton and amino group gain proton. Thus in aqueous
solution amino and carboxyl group are in ionized form and amino acid exist
into dipolar ion.
Essential/ Non essential amino acid:
• Twenty six different 2-amino acid have been isolated.
• Out of these 20 amino acid in all proteins.
• The other six are found only in special tissue.
• Out of 20 amino acid required for protein synthesis, the human body can
synthesis only 10.
• These 10 amino acid which our body can synthesis are called non- essential and
the remaining ten which are required for protein synthesis must be in the diet
are called essential amino acid.
Peptide
• Compound formed by the condensation of two or more same or
different amino acid
• It occurs between amino acids with the elimination of water molecule
• The resulting CO-NH linkage which joins two same or different amino
acids is called peptide bond

• Structure of dipeptide
• Dipeptide : the structure formed due to condensation of only two
molecules of same or different amino acids is called dipeptide.
• Tri-peptide: Structure formed by combination of three amino acids is
called tri-peptide. For eg
Polypeptide:
If a large number of amino acids are joined by peptide bond the
resulting structure is called polypeptide. Polypeptide with more than
10000 mol. Mass animo is called protein .Polypeptide has free amino
group generally at left and carboxyl group generally at right.
Proteins:
• Are complex nitrogenous molecule which are essential for growth and
to maintain the life
• They perform wide variety of biological functions and are
constituents of the cells and therefore are present in all living bodies.
• Structurally proteins are long polymer of amino acid linked by
peptide bond (CO-NH) with very high molecular mass.
• Classification:
• On the basis of molecular structure
• Fibrous protein :
• linear thread like polypeptide chains, various chain are arranged by H- bonds.
Hair ,nail, wool
• Globular protein:
• polypeptide chains are folded tightly into compact spherical form .enzymes,
hormones. Venoms, antibodies haemoglobins
• On the basis of hydrolysis product:
• Simple proteins gives amino acid only
• Conjugated proteins: gives amino acids and non proteins part
• Derived proteins partial hydrolysis product of simple or conjugated proteins.
• Structure of Proteins
• Structure is very complex large no. of amino acids are joined together by peptide
bond having three dimensional structure .Its structure is usually studied at
following level.
• Primary structure:
• Gives sequence of amino acids in polypeptide chain and can be identify by hydrolysis
• Secondary structure :
• Manner of polypeptide chains arranged or folded. It arise due to CO –NH hydrogen bond.
There are two types
Alpha Helix :
• Hydrogen bond with in a chain cause polypeptide chain coils up
Beta pleated sheet structure :
• Polypeptide chains are stretched out to nearly maximum extension and lie side by side in
zig- zag chain to form flat sheet.
• Tertiary structure : Arises due to folding , coiling, bending of
polypeptide chains producing 3D structure
Denaturation Of proteins
The process which leads to change in physical and biological properties
of protein without affecting its chemical composition is called
denaturation.
Denaturation causes only change in secondary and tertiary structure
but primary structure remains same.
Denaturation is caused by change in PH ,temperature, UV rays, addition
of electrolyte etc.
Eg. Preparation of cheese from milk, coagulation of egg white
During denaturation the protein molecules uncoils from an ordered and
specific conformation to random conformation.
Functions of proteins
• As a enzymes : all enzymes are globular protein
• As a structural material : keratin in skin feathers. hair , myosin in
muscles
• As a transport material: globin present in haemoglobin
• As a reserve food: egg albumin, casein of milk
• As a chemical regulator: nucleoprotein carry ( regulates) genetic
information ,insulin regulates blood sugar
Enzymes:
Enzymes are bio- catalyst produced by living cells which catalyse many biochemical
reactions in living beings.
Chemically they are globular protein .Some enzymes are associated with non proteins
component known as prosthetic group.
Characteristics:
Catalytic efficiency
Specificity
Effect of temperature
Effect of pH
Presence of electrolyte
Exposure of UV rays
Presence of enzyme inhibitors
Nucleic Acid
• Are biologically important polymer which are present in living cells
• They play important role in
• Development and reproduction of all form of life
• Synthesis of protein
• Transfer of genetic information

Nucleic Acid contains

 A pentose sugar ( ribose or deoxy-ribose)
 Nitrogen containing heterocyclic base [purines ( A or G )or pyrimidine( U, T, C) ]
 Phosphate group
• Nucleoside : base -sugar unit of nucleic acid
• Nucleotide :Base – sugar – phosphate unit. It is the repeating unit of
nucleic acid . Phosphate group is attached with hydroxyl group
generally at C5

• So nucleic acid can be considered as a polymer of nucleotide

• Nucleic acid are two types
• DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acid
• RNA – Ribonucleic acid
• DNA : consist of deoxyribose sugar, A,T,C,G nitrogen base , and phosphate
group.
• Nucleotide are connected by phosphate group by phospho- ester bond
• Structure:
• Primary structure –sequence of nucleotide
• Secondary structure: ( purposed by Watson and Crick) a double stranded helix
structure
• Structure of DNA
Function of DNA
• Acts as carrier of genetic information from parents to their off-springs
• Guides the process of protein synthesis
• DNA is involved in protein synthesis
• Lipids:
• Lipids are waxy and oily substances which are present in all living
organism . Chemically lipids are the ester of long chain fatty acids and
alcohol
• Soluble in organic solvent but insoluble in water
• Give monocarboxylic acid on hydrolysis.
Classification
Fats and oils
• Both fats and oils are triglycerides which are simple and most
abundant lipids.

• structure of triglycerides
Hydrogenation:
• Oil can be converted to fat by hydrogenation . When hydrogen is
passed through the unsaturated triglyceride under pressure in the
presence of nickel catalyst at 2000c fats are obtained . This is
commonly called hardening of oil or hydrogenation
Saponification
• Alkaline hydrolysis of triglycerides( fat or oils) to form a soap i.e sodium or
potassium salt of long chain fatty acid and tri-hydric alcohol is called
saponification.
• Polymer:
• A polymer is a giant chain like molecule obtained by intermolecular
combination of large no. of smaller molecules of same or different
type eg starch, protein, nucleic acid etc.
• The simple molecules which combines to give polymer are called
monomers . The process by which the simple molecules are converted
into polymer is called polymerisation
Classification
• Based on nature of monomer
• Homopolymer: Polymer formed by only one type of monomer is
called homopolymer.
• Poly-ethene (Polymer of ethene)
• Polyvinyl chloride ( polymer of vinyl chloride )
• Teflon (Polymer of tetra-fluroethene)
• Co- polymer : Polymer formed by two or more same or different
kinds of monomer is called co polymer
• Nylon 66 ( polymer of hexamethylene diamine and adipic acid)
• Terylene ( polymer of ethane 1,2 diol and terepthalic acid)
• Bakelite ( polymer of phenol and formaldehyde)
Based on sources of availability polymer are
• Natural polymer : polymer obtained from nature ( Plants and animals)
eg. Starch ,cellulose, protein, natural rubber
• Synthetic polymer: polymer prepared in the laboratories ie man
made polymer
• Eg. Polyethene , PVC, Teflon ,nylon 66
• Type of polymerisation
• Addition polymerisation : polymer formed by repetition of
momomer unit with out loss of any smaller molecules is addition
polymerisation . Eg. Formation of polyethene, PVC, Teflon
• Condensation polymerisation: polymer formed by combination of
same or different monomer unit with the elimination of smaller
molecules like water, HCl, NH3 eg. Formation of nylon 66, Bakelite
Preparation of some polymers
Polyethene: Polyethylene is prepared by heating ethylene to 473K
under a pressure of 1500 atm in the presence of Zeigler Natta catalyst
( tri-ethyl aluminium and titanium tetrachloride). This polymerisation
occurs as free radical mechanism which is initiated by oxygen.
Teflon
• The monomer used in preparation of teflon is tetrafluoroethylene,
(CF2 = CF2), which is a gas at room temperature.
Tetrafluoroethylene is polymerized by using free-radical initiators such
as hydrogen peroxide or ammonium persulphate at high pressure to
produce polytetrafluoroethylene (teflon).
• Polyvinyl chloride : PVC is produced by polymerization of vinyl
chloride monomer (VCM)
• Nylon 66
• Bakelite is the commercial name for the polymer obtained by the
polymerization of phenol and formaldehyde.
• Ortho and para substituted phenol can under go polymerisation to
produce a cross linked polymer known as Bakelite
• Thermoplastics: Polymer can easily be softened repeatily when
heated and harden when cooled with little change in their
properties .eg Polyethene ,PVC, Polystyrene,etc.

• Thermosetting plastics: polymer which undergo permanent change on

heating eg. Bakelite,
Chemotherapy: It is the phenomenon in which organic compounds with
definite structure are used for the treatment of certain disease by
destroying the invading organism without damaging of host tissue.
Antipyretics
They are the compounds used for the propose of reducing fever . The
most common antipyretics are Aspirin, Paracetamol , Phenacetin
Analgesics: Analgesics are medicines that are used to relieve pain.
They are also known as painkillers or pain relievers. Technically, the
term analgesic refers to a medication that provides relief from pain
without putting you to sleep or making you lose consciousness or
without any disturbances of central nervous system.
There are two types of analgesics
Non- narcotic: ( Habit not forming) Aspirin Analgin , Novalgin
Narcotic : (Habit forming) Morphine ,Heroin etc.
• Antibiotics:
• These are the chemical substances which are produced by microorganism and
can inhibit the growth or even destroy other microorganism
• The first successful antibiotics was penicillin
• Narrow spectrum Can be used for curing of fewer
microorganism eg. Penicillin

Broad spectrum: Are effective against several

types harmful microorganism eg. Chloromycetin,
Tranquilizer:
These are the chemical substances which are used for the cure of
mental disease . These affect the central nervous system and induce
sleep to the patients. Eg Equanil , barbituric acid etc.
• Antiseptics:
• The chemical substances which are used to either kill
• or prevent the growth of microorganism are called antiseptics . These
are not harmful to living tissue and can be safely applied on wounds
,cuts or diseased skin surface. They also reduce the odour resulting
from bacterial decomposition of the body.
• Dettol (Mixture of chloroxylenol and terpineol), Bithionol, iodine
• Sulphadrugs:
• These are the groups of synthetic drugs have great antibacterial
activities .They differ from the antibiotics in the sense that they are
not derived from microorganism but are chemically synthesised. Eg.

Sulphadiazine Sulphanilamide
Pesticides:
• Various plants and animals cause lot of destruction of agricultural
crops and products are called pests . Chemicals used for the propose
of killing pests are known as pesticides. Pesticides include
insecticides, fungicides and herbicide or weedicides
• Insecticides: Chemical used for killing for insect. The most commonly
used insecticides is DDT. It is dichlodiphenyl trichloroethane. It is
prepared by heating a mixture of chloral and chlorobenzene in the
presence of conc. Sulphuric acid
• Another insecticides is BHC ,benzenehexa-chlorides. It is prepared by
addition of chlorine to benzene in the presence of UV rays
• Some others chlorine containing insect ides are are methoxychlor ,
dieldrin ,DDD.
• A second variety of insecticides is organic phosphate ,They are less
effective in action but are bio degradable .eg. Malathion , parathion
• The third variety of insecticides are naturally secreted by some female
insects to attract their male are called pheromones ,These are sex
attracted chemicals and are highly specific in action. i.e they attract only
one kind of insects. Eg Disparlure.
• Weedicides: The chemicals used for killing weeds are called herbicides .
The two effective herbicides are 2,4D( 2,4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid)
and 2,4,5 T ( 2,4,5 trichlorophenoxyacetic acid)
• Chemicals used for killing for algae and fungi are called funficides .
• eg mixture of CuSO4 and CaO ( Bordeaux mixture) 2,4,6- tri-chlorophenol
• Fertilizers:
• These are the substances which fulfil the nutrient element needed for the
growth of plant, make them strong and give better crops from the same plants.
• Plants need water and sunlight for their growth. In addition to it, various
elements like N, P, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn etc. also needed and these are drawn out
from the soil. After sometime the soil becomes poor in these elements.
Therefore should be added from outside source.
• Fertilizers are of two types:
• Organic: They are prepare from the dead & rotten plants & animals bodies and
their wastes. All the nutrients are available, but difficult to use.
• Chemical: Prepared in industries. There are large number of chemicals fertilizer
which contain N, P & K. These are the vital ingredients for the soil fertility.
• Characteristics:
• Freely water soluble, elements required for the plants should be readily available,
should be sufficiently stable, should have good storage capacity i.e. should not be
hydroscopic.
• Function of essential nutrients:
• Nitrogen - Helps in rapid growth, increases yield ,increase protein content,
produce green colouring matter.
• Phosphorous- Quick and vigorous start of plants, stimulates early root formation
and growth, early maturity of crops. Formation of seed, increases resistance to
frost.
• Potassium- Control excess of nitrogen supply, play role in carbohydrate formation,
resistance to disease, make stalks stronger and development of healthy root.
 Nitrogen fertilizer
• Urea: contains 46% nitrogen, maximum% of nitrogen. Colourless crystalline
solid having no odour, highly soluble in water. Used for growth of plants.
• Ammonium Sulphate: 22% nitrogen, white crystalline solid soluble in water,
(NH4)2SO4
• Ammonium Nitrate:
• CAN- Calcium Ammonium Nitrate: [Ca (NO3)2 .NH4NO3]
• - It is also an important nitrogenous fertilizer which contains about 20%
nitrogen. It is directly consumed by the plants and does not undergo any change
is the soil. It is highly soluble in water.
Phosphorus fertilizers:
• They are the important source of phosphorus in plants. The principle constituent
of super phosphate in monocalcium tetra hydrogen diphosphate CaH4 (PO4)2. The
amount of available phosphorus is increased in super phosphate by changing it
into double and triple superphosphate.
• CaH2 (HPO4)2- double superphosphate
• Ca (H2PO4)2- triple superphosphate
• Potash fertilizer:
• KCl- white crystalline salt, highly soluble in water, increases fertility,
• K2SO4- white crystalline salt, 41-42% .K.
• KNO3- source of K & nitrogen, white, crystalline solid, highly soluble
Fertilizer as a pollutant ………………………………………………………………………………..
Dyes:
• A coloured substances that can be applied from solution or dispersion to a
substance, giving it a coloured appearance is called dye. A dye should have a
• suitable colour, able to fix itself or be capable of being fixed to the fabric &
should be resistant to the action of water, dilute acid or alkali & fast to light.

Why an object is appear coloured?

• The colour of the dyes is due to selective absorption of light.
• Light totally reflected back- white (colourless)
• Light totally absorbed – black
• Partially absorbed and rest is reflected/ transmitted -appear colour
• If a single wavelength or narrow band of wavelength is absorbed by a
substance and the rest is transmitted/ reflected then the substance
appears to be of the colour complementary to that of the absorbed light.
• Colour absorb Complementary
• Violet yellow-green
• Blue yellow
• Green- blue orange
• Blue-green red
• Green purple
• 
• If only one narrow band of light is reflect transmitted and the rest is
absorbed, then the substance would appear to have a colour of reflected
light.
• Colour & structure:
• An organic compounds appear coloured due to presence of certain
unsaturated group in it. Such group with multiple bonds are called
chromophore. Eg. -NO2 , -N=N-O (azoxy) ,>C=O (carbonyl)
(azo) –N=N-

Compound with chromo phore group is called chromogen. Greater the

chromophore or conjugation in a molecule , greater is the intensity of
colour
• The presence of certain group which helps the chromogen to fix
permanently to the fabric to be dyed are called auxochromes. Eg. OH,
NH2, SO3H etc.

In a compound azobenzene is chromogene

-N=N- is chromophore
NH2 is auxochromes

• 
• Classification:
• On the basis of origin dyes are classified into two types natural and synthetic
dyes:
• The dyes which are extracted from the plants and animals are called natural
dyes. Most of plants contain coloured flowers. The coloured substances from
the flowers are extracted to obtain natural dye. Alizarin (red dye) indigo (blue
green).
On the other hand, synthetic dyes are the are prepared in laboratory. Almost all
dye are synthetic dyes. Most of synthetic dyes are synthesized from coal tar.
Different synthetic routes are employed for the preparation.
• Eg. Methyl orange, aniline yellow, ( azo dye) Malachite green,
phenolphthalein .Martius yellow
• Classification based on mode of application
• Acid dye: are sod. Salt of sulphonic acid, used to dye wool, silk, nylon
in acidic medium. Eg. Orange.I
• Basic dye: Contain amino or substituted amino group, used to dye
polyester in basic medium. Eg. Aniline yellow, Malachite green.
• Azo dye: Contains azo group (-N = N-) as a chromophore. Eg. Aniline
yellow, methyl orange, orange (I). Colouring silk, Cotton, polyester,
nylon, leather, etc
• Mordant dye
• Vat dye
• Disperse dye
• Fiber active dye