Chapter 1.

1D Heat Equation
1. Problem definition

We consider a solid bar of prismatic shape, made from a

homogeneous material.

The bar is thermally insulated along its lateral sides so that heat
can only flow in the longitudinal direction.

Fig 1. Bar under consideration

u  Temperature in the bar, expressed in degree Kelvin [K]

A temperature of 0 [K ] corresponds to -273.15 degrees Celsius

[°C]. This is the absolute zero temperature, which is thought to be
the lowest temperature possible.
A temperature of 0 °C corresponds to 273.15 K.

Material properties

The bar is made from a homogeneous material with the

following properties:
Note: In problems where
  density [kg/m3] temperature is expressed in
[°C], replace K by °C in these
K  thermal conductivity [W/(m.K)]
units. The values will not
c  specific heat [J/(kg. K)] change.
The specific heat of a material is the amount of heat required to
increase the temperature of 1 kg of that material by 1 degree K
(or 1 °C).

Question: What is the amount of heat Q, required to increase

the temperature of a volume V of material with density , by an
amount equal to u [K]?

Answer: A volume V of material of density  has a mass,

M =  V [kg].
to increase the temperature of this mass of material by 1
degree K, we need an amount of energy =  V × c
For a temperature increase of u [K], the required amount
of energy =  V × c × u = c V u [J]
Let’s consider a small volume element of length x within the bar.
The bar has a cross section of area A, constant along the length L.

Fig 2. Bar element

This small material volume has temperature u, measured at mid-

point M. The amount of heat dH inside this volume element
corresponds to an increase of temperature from 0 to u.

 dH = c (A dx) u (1)

The amount of heat in the whole bar is

L L
H   dH    cAudx (2)
0 0
Fourier’s law of heat conduction

The flow of heat in the bar is defined by the heat flux q.

The heat flux q is the amount of heat that passes through the
cross-section A per unit of area and unit of time.
It has the unit: [J/(m2.s) = W/m2].

Fig 3. Heat flux

Heat flows from hot to cold points. Hence, in the 1D bar, heat
flows in the direction opposite to the temperature gradient.
According to Fourier’s law of heat conduction, the heat flux
between two close points in the bar is proportional to the
temperature gradient between these two points.

Fig 4. Heat flux between 2 close points in the bar

 uB  u A 
q  K   (3)
  x 
When x  dx (infinitely small element), the heat flux at a point in
the bar is given by
u
q  K (4)
x
Equation (4) is an expression of Fourier’s law of heat conduction.
The minus sign ensures that heat flux has a direction opposite to
the temperature gradient as stated before.

Question: Use Fourier’s law to check the unit of the thermal

conductivity K.

Answer: Let UK be the unit of the thermal conductivity K

u
q  K
x

W K W
  U K  U K 
m2 m m.K
2. The heat equation
Heat is provided to the bar in such a way that a heat flux q1

enters the bar at the cross-section 1 and a heat flux q2 leaves the
bar at the cross-section 2.

Fig 5. Heat provided to the bar from an external source

As a result, the total internal heat H stored in the bar starts to

H
increase at a rate .
t
u
This results into an increase in the temperature at a rate .
t
First, let’s consider a volume element of length dx inside the bar.
The heat flux that enters the element at the cross-section A of
coordinate x is q(x). At the second cross-section, of coordinate
x + dx, a heat flux q(x) + (q/x) dx leaves the element.

Question: What is the amount of heat stored in the volume

element during a time dt ?

Answer: [q(x) – (q(x) + q/x dx)] × A × dt

= - (q/x) A dx dt
 The variation, during time dt, of heat stored in the bar is
H L q
dt    dx  A  dt
t 0 x
H L q
    A dx (5)
t 0 x
u
Substitution of Fourier’s law q   K (4) into (5) gives
x
H L  2u
  KA 2 dx (6)
t 0 x
L
From eq. (2) H    cAudx (2)
0

L u L  2u
(6)  0  cA t dx  0 KA x 2 dx
u  2u
 cA  KA 2
 t x
 u  2u
 c  K 2
t x
And after dividing by c

u 2  u
2
K
 (7) where  
2
(8)
t x 2 c

Equation (7) is a partial differential equation (PDE) known as the

heat equation. The constant  given by (8) is the thermal
diffusivity of the material (unit of 2: [m2/s])

The heat equation is also called the diffusion equation

because it also models chemical diffusion of one substance or
gas into another.
3. Problem model of heat transfer in a
homogeneous medium

The solution of heat transfer problems in homogeneous media

requires initial and boundary conditions to be specified.
For the 1D problem of heat transfer in a homogeneous bar,
temperature in the bar at time t=0 must be specified (initial
condition).
Boundary conditions consist of prescribed temperature, a
prescribed flux, or a combination of both at the ends x=0 and x=L.

Here is an example of problem statement for the heat transfer in a

1D homogeneous bar
Example
Given the material constants , K and c, find the temperature u(x,t)
in a bar of length L and constant cross-section A, satisfying the
heat equation and boundary conditions below

u  2
u
 2
(1)
t x 2
u( 0 ,t )  0
(2) Boundary conditions (BCs)
u( L,t )  0

u( x,0 )   ( x ) (3) Initial condition (IC)

According to the conditions (2), the function  must satisfy:

( 0 )  0 and ( L )  0
4. Solution by Fourier Series

Step 1. Separation of the heat equation (1) into two

ordinary differential equations (ODEs).

First, the function u(x,t) is written under the form

u( x,t )  F( x )G( t )

Substitution in (1) gives

u 2  u
2
 
FG   2 "
FG
t x 2 
2
dG d F
Where G
 and F  2
"

dt dx
Dividing by  2
FG
G F"
FG   2 F " G   (4)
 G F
2

The left side of (4) depends only of t and the right side depends
only of x.
 Both sides must be equal to a constant k.

Question: Show that for k = 0 or k > 0 the only solution u = FG

satisfying the boundary conditions (2) is u = 0.

Answer: See appendix

For k<0; let k = -p2 (p ≠ 0)

G F"  F "  p 2 F  0 (5)

   p 2
 
 2G F G   p G  0 (6)
2 2

Step 2. Satisfying the BCs (2)

A general solution of (5) is

F( x )  Acos( px )  B sin( px )
 u( 0 ,t )  F( 0 )G( t )  0
(2)  
u( L,t )  F( L )G( t )  0

Since G(t) = 0 would give u = 0, we require F(0) = 0 and F(L) = 0

 F( 0 )  A  0

F( L )  B sin( pL )  0 (B  0 to avoid F=0)

 sin( pL )  0  pL  n ; n  1, 2 ,...

n
 p L

As B is arbitrary, we set B = 1

n x 
Solutions of (5) are Fn ( x )  sin   , n  1, 2 ,...
 L 

n
Now we solve (6) for p  L
 2
2  n 
G    G  0

 L 
 n
Let n   G  n 2G  0
L

Question: Check that this equation has the general solution

 n 2t
Gn ( t )  Bn e where Bn is a constant

 n x   n2t (7)
Hence un ( x,t )  Fn ( x )Gn ( t )  Bn sin  e
 L 
Functions un(x,t) are solutions of the heat equation (1), satisfying
the BCs (2).

These functions are called eigenfunctions of the problem,

 n
 
corresponding to the eigenvalues n L
Step 3. Solutions of the entire problem using Fourier series

So far, solution (7) satisfies the BCs (2). In order to satisfy the
initial condition (3), we write u(x,t) as a series of the
eigenfunctions.
 
 n x   n2t
u( x,t )   un ( x,t )   Bn sin  e (8)
n 1 n 1  L 

 n x 
IC. (3)  u( x,0 )   Bn sin    ( x )
n 1  L 


n x 
The expression  ( x )   Bn sin  
n 1  L 

Is the development of the function (x) into Fourier series.

Hence, Bn are the coefficients of the Fourier sine series of the
function (x). These coefficients have the expression:

2 L  n x 
Bn    ( x )sin  dx (9)
L 0  L 

Note that, due to the exponential factor in (8), all terms approach
0 as t approaches infinity.
Example 1. Sinusoidal initial temperature

- Find the temperature u(x,t) in a laterally insulated copper bar

80 cm long if the initial temperature is 100 sin(x/80) °C and
the ends are kept at 0° C.
- How long will it take for the maximum temperature in the bar
to drop to 50°C?

Material properties of copper:

  density = 8920 kg/m3

K  thermal conductivity = 397 W/(m.C)

 ( x )  100 sin(  x / 80 ) C
c  specific heat = 385 J/(kg.C)
Solution

Temperature in the bar is given by (8)


 n x   n2t  n
u( x,t )   Bn sin  e where n 
L
n 1  L 
2 L  n x dx
L 0
Coefficients Bn are given by (9) Bn   ( x )sin  
 L 

 ( x )  100 sin(  x / 80 ) C
  n x   x 

u( x,0 )   Bn sin     ( x )  100 sin  
n 1  L   L 

By inspection  B1 = 100 and B2 = B3 = … = 0

  x   12t
 u( x,t )  100 sin   e
 L 
 2 2
  2
1
2

L
K 397
2    1.156  104 m2 / s
 c 8920  385

1.156 104   2
   1
2
2
 1 .783  10 3 1
s
0.8
  x  1.783103 t
u( x,t )  100 sin  e
 L 
- How long will it take for the maximum temperature in the bar to
drop to 50°C?

At time t = 0, u( x,0 )   ( x )  100 sin(  x / 80 ) C

Temperature is max at
x = L/2 and has a value
of 100 °C. As time
elapses, temperature
drops.

 L 
L   2  1.783103 t 1.783103 t
u  ,t   100 sin   e  100e
2  
L

 
 1.783103 t
100e  50
1.783103 t 1

e 
2
1.783103 t
 e 2

 1.783 103 t  ln(2)

ln(2)
 t 3
 389 s  6.5 [min]
1.783 10
Appendix

G F"
k (1) k (2) u( x,t )  F( x )G( t )
G
2
F

F"
For k = 0 , (2)   0  F"  0  F( x )  Ax  B
F
u( 0,t )  0  F( 0 )  0  B  0
u( L,t )  0  F( L )  0  AL  0  A  0

 F( x )  0  u( x,t )  0
 G F"
k (1) k (2) u( x,t )  F( x )G( t )
 G
2
F

For k > 0 , (2)  F "  kF  F( x )  Ae kx

 Be  kx

u( 0 ,t )  0  F( 0 )  0  A  B  0

u( L,t )  0  F( L )  0  Ae kL
 Be  kL

 1 1   A  0 
  kL  kL   
 
e e   B  0 

The system above has the only solution A = B = 0


as the determinant = e kL
e kL
0

 F( x )  0  u( x,t )  0