BOILING AND CONDENSATION

Boiling Heat Transfer

• Evaporation occurs at • Boiling occurs at the
the liquid–vapor solid–liquid interface
interface when the when a liquid is brought
vapor pressure is less into contact with a
than the saturation surface maintained at a
pressure of temperature sufficiently
the liquid above the saturation
at a given temperature of the
liquid
temperature.
 Classification of boiling
Pool Boiling Flow Boiling
• Boiling is called pool boiling • Boiling is called flow
in the absence of bulk fluid boiling in the presence of
flow. bulk fluid flow.
• Any motion of the fluid is • In flow boiling, the fluid
due to natural convection is forced to move in a
currents and the motion of heated pipe
the bubbles under
or over a
the influence of
surface by
buoyancy.
external
means such
Boiling heat flux from a solid surface to the fluid as a pump.

excess temperature
 Classification of boiling
Subcooled Boiling Saturated Boiling
• When the temperature • When the temperature
of the main body of the of the liquid is equal to
liquid is below the the saturation
saturation temperature. temperature.
POOL BOILING
In pool boiling, the fluid is not forced to flow
by a mover such as a pump.
Any motion of the fluid is due to natural
convection currents and the motion of the
bubbles under the influence of buoyancy.

Boiling Regimes and

the Boiling Curve

Boiling takes different forms, depending on

the Texcess = Ts  Tsat

5
6
 Natural Convection Boiling
(to Point A on the Boiling Curve)
• Bubbles do not form on the heating surface until the liquid is heated
a few degrees above the saturation temperature (about 2 to 6°C for
water)
• The liquid is slightly superheated in this case (metastable state).
• The fluid motion in this mode of boiling is governed by natural
convection currents.
• Heat transfer from the
heating surface to the fluid
is by natural convection.
• For the conditions of Fig.
10–6, natural convection
boiling ends at an excess
temperature of about 5°C.

7
Nucleate Boiling (between
Points A and C)
• The bubbles form at an
increasing rate at an increasing
number of nucleation sites as we
move along the boiling curve
toward point C.

• Region A–B ─ isolated bubbles.

• Region B–C ─ numerous

continuous columns of vapor in
the liquid.

Point A is referred to as
the onset of nucleate
boiling (ONB).
8
Heat Transfer Correlations in Pool Boiling
• Boiling regimes differ considerably in their character.
• Different heat transfer relations need to be used for different boiling regimes.
• In the natural convection boiling regime heat transfer rates can be accurately
determined using natural convection relations.

Nucleate Boiling

• No general theoretical relations for heat

transfer in the nucleate boiling regime is
available.
• Experimental based correlations are
used.
• The rate of heat transfer strongly
depends on the nature of nucleation
and the type and the condition of the
heated surface.

9
• For nucleate boiling a widely used
correlation proposed in 1952 by Rohsenow:

10
11
 Peak Heat Flux
• The maximum (or critical) heat flux (CHF) in nucleate pool boiling:

Ccr is a constant whose value depends on the heater geometry, but

generally is about 0.15.
• The CHF is independent of the fluid–heating surface combination, as well
as the viscosity, thermal conductivity, and the specific heat of the liquid.
• The CHF increases with pressure up to about one-third of the critical
pressure, and then starts to decrease and becomes zero at the critical
pressure.
• The CHF is proportional to hfg, and large maximum heat fluxes can be
obtained using fluids with a large enthalpy of vaporization, such as water.

12
 Minimum Heat Flux
• Minimum heat flux, which occurs
at the Leidenfrost point, is of
practical interest since it
represents the lower limit for the
heat flux in the film boiling regime.
• Zuber derived the following
expression for the minimum heat
flux for a large horizontal plate

• This relation above can be in error

by 50% or more.

Transition
boiling
regime 13
Film Boiling
The heat flux for film boiling on a horizontal cylinder or
sphere of diameter D is given by

• At high surface temperatures

(typically above 300°C), heat
transfer across the vapor film by
radiation becomes significant and
needs to be considered.

14
• The two-phase flow in a tube
exhibits different flow boiling
regimes, depending on the
relative amounts of the liquid
and the vapor phases.
• Note that the tube contains a
liquid before the bubbly flow
regime and a vapor after the
mist-flow regime.
• Heat transfer in those two
cases can be determined
using the appropriate
relations for single-phase
convection heat transfer.

15
Condensation

• Condensation occurs when the temperature

of a vapor is reduced below its saturation
temperature.
• Only condensation on solid surfaces is
considered in this chapter.
• Two forms of condensation:
 Film condensation,
Dropwise condensation.
 Film condensation Dropwise condensation
• The condensate wets the • The condensed vapor forms
surface and forms a liquid droplets on the surface.
film. • The droplets slide down
• The surface is blanketed when they reach a certain
size.
by a liquid film which
serves as a resistance to • No liquid film to resist heat
heat transfer. transfer.
• As a result, heat transfer
rates that are more than 10
times larger
than with film
condensation
can be achieved.
Film Condensation on a Vertical
Plate
• liquid film starts forming at the top of
the plate and flows downward under
the influence of gravity.
•  increases in the flow direction x
• Heat in the amount hfg is released
during condensation and is
transferred through the film to the
plate surface.
• Ts must be below the saturation
temperature for condensation.
• The temperature of the condensate
is Tsat at the interface and decreases
gradually to Ts at the wall.
Vertical Plate ─ Flow Regimes
• The dimensionless parameter
controlling the transition between
regimes is the Reynolds number
defined as:
hydraulic diameter  Dh 

Re x 
 4  lVl
l

• Three prime flow regimes:

 Re<30 ─ Laminar (wave-free),
 30<Re<1800 ─ Wavy-laminar,
 Re>1800 ─ Turbulent.
• The Reynolds number increases in the
flow direction.
Heat Transfer Correlations for
Film Condensation ─ Vertical
wall
Assumptions:
1. Both the plate and the vapor are
maintained at constant temperatures of Ts
and Tsat, respectively, and the temperature
across the liquid film varies linearly.
2. Heat transfer across the liquid film is by
pure conduction.
3. The velocity of the vapor is low (or zero)
so that it exerts no drag on the
condensate (no viscous shear on the
liquid–vapor interface).
4. The flow of the condensate is laminar
(Re<30) and the properties of the liquid
are constant.
5. The acceleration of the condensate layer Height L and width b
is negligible.
Hydrodynamics
• Netwon’s second law of motion
Weight=Viscous shear force +Buoyancy force
or du
l g    y   bdx   l  bdx   v g    y   bdx 
dy

• Canceling the plate width b and solving for du/dy

du g  l  v     y 

dy l

• Integrating from y=0 (u =0) to y (u =u(y))

g  l   v   y2 
u( y)   y   (10-12)
l  2 
• The mass flow rate of the condensate at a
location x is determined from

m ( x)   l u ( y )dA   l u ( y )bdy (10-13)
A y 0

Substituting u(y) from Eq. 10–12 into Eq. 10–13

gb l  l  v   3
 m( x )  (10-14)
3l

whose derivative with respect to x is

dm gb l  l  v   d 
2

 (10-15)
dx l dx
Thermal Considerations

• The rate of heat transfer from the vapor to the

plate through the liquid film

Tsat  Ts
dQ  h fg dm  kl  bdx 


dm kl b Tsat  Ts
  (10-16)
dx h fg 
• Equating Eqs. 10–15 and 10–16 and
separating the variables give
l kl  Tsat  Ts 
 d 
3
dx
g l  l   v  h fg (10-17)

• Integrating from x =0 (=0) to x (=(x)),

the liquid film thickness at x1 4is determined
 4 l kl  Tsat  Ts  x 
to be  ( x)    (10-18)
 g l  l  v  h fg 
• Since the heat transfer across the liquid film is assumed to be
by pure conduction, the heat transfer coefficient can be
expressed through Newton’s law of cooling and Fourier law as
Tsat  Ts kl
q x  hx  Tsat  Ts   kl  hx  (10-19)
 

• Substituting (x) from Eq. 10–18, the local heat transfer

coefficient is determined to be 3 1 4
 g l  l  v  h fg kl 
hx    (10-20)
 4 l  Tsat  Ts  x 

• The average heat transfer coefficient over the entire

3 1 4 plate is
1 L 4  g    h k   
h   hx dx  hx  L  0.943 
l l v fg l
 (10-21)
L 0 3  l  Tsat  Ts  L 
• It is observed to underpredict heat transfer
because it does not take into account the
effects of the nonlinear temperature profile
in the liquid film and the cooling of the
liquid below the saturation temperature.
• Both of these effects can be accounted for
by replacing hfg by modified h*fg to yield
 g l  l   v  h k
14
1 L 4
* 3

h   hx dx  hx  L  0.943 
fg l
 (10-22)
L 0 3  l  Tsat  Ts  L 

0 <Re<30
• When v«l (and thus l-v≈l). Using this approximation
and substituting Eqs. 10–14 and 10–18 at x =L into the
Reynolds number definition by noting that x=L=kl/hx=L and
havg=4/3hx=L (Eqs. 10–19 and 10–21) give

3
4 g l  l   v  
3
4 g   kl  4 g  kl  (10-
3 2
Re      2 
l

3 l2
3  hx  L  3 l  3havg / 4  23)
l
2
• Then the average heat transfer coefficient in terms of Re
becomes
1/ 3
1/ 3  g  (10-
havg  1.47kl Re  2   v  l
 l  24)
• The results obtained from the theoretical relations above
are in excellent agreement with the experimental results.
Wavy Laminar Flow on Vertical
Plates
• The waves at the liquid–vapor interface tend to
increase heat transfer.
• Knowledge is based on experimental studies.
• The increase in heat transfer due to the wave
effect is, on average, about 20 percent, but it can
exceed 50 percent.
• Based on his experimental studies, Kutateladze
(1963) recommended the following
1/ 3
relation
Re kl  g 
havg , wavy   2 ;  v  l
1.08 Re  5.2   l 
1.22
Turbulent Flow on Vertical Plates
• Labuntsov (1957) proposed the following
relation for the turbulent flow of condensate
on vertical plates: 1/ 3
Re kl  g 
havg ,turbulent  2
8750  58 Pr 0.5  
Re  253   l 
0.75

• The physical properties of the condensate are

to be evaluated at the film temperature.
Nondimensionalized Heat
Transfer
Coefficients
Dropwise Condensation
• One of the most effective mechanisms of heat
transfer, and extremely large heat transfer
coefficients can be achieved.
• Small droplets grow as a result of continued
condensation, coalesce into large droplets, and slide
down when they reach a certain size.
• Large heat transfer
coefficients enable designers
to achieve a specified heat
transfer rate with a smaller
surface area.
Dropwise Condensation

• The challenge in dropwise condensation is not

to achieve it, but rather, to sustain it for
prolonged periods of time.
• Dropwise condensation has been studied
experimentally for a number of surface–fluid
combinations.
• Griffith (1983) recommends these simple
correlations for dropwise condensation of steam
on copper surfaces:
51,104  2044T 22 0C  T  100 0C
 sat sat
hdropwise  
255,310 Tsat  100 0C
 Condensation
• Condensation occurs when the temperature of
a vapor is reduced below its saturation
temperature.
• Only condensation on solid surfaces is
considered in this chapter.
• Two forms of condensation:
– Film condensation,
– Dropwise condensation.
 Film condensation
• The condensate wets the
surface and forms a liquid
film.
• The surface is blanketed by
a liquid film which serves as
a resistance to heat transfer.
Dropwise condensation
• The condensed vapor forms
droplets on the surface.
• The droplets slide down
when they reach a certain
size.
• No liquid film to resist heat
transfer.
• As a result, heat transfer
rates that are more than 10
times larger
than with film
condensation
can be achieved.
 Film Condensation on a Vertical Plate
• liquid film starts forming at the top
of the plate and flows downward
under the influence of gravity.
•  increases in the flow direction x
• Heat in the amount hfg is released
during condensation and is
transferred through the film to the
plate surface.
• Ts must be below the saturation
temperature for condensation.
• The temperature of the condensate
is Tsat at the interface and decreases
gradually to Ts at the wall.
 Vertical Plate ─ Flow Regimes
• The dimensionless parameter
controlling the transition between
regimes is the Reynolds number
defined as:
hydraulic diameter  Dh 

Re x 
 4  lVl
l

• Three prime flow regimes:

– Re<30 ─ Laminar (wave-free),
– 30<Re<1800 ─ Wavy-laminar,
– Re>1800 ─ Turbulent.
• The Reynolds number increases in the
flow direction.
Heat transfer in
condensation depends
on whether the
condensate flow is
laminar or turbulent.
The criterion for the
flow regime is provided
by the Reynolds
number.

37
When the final state is subcooled liquid instead of saturated liquid:
Modified latent heat of vaporization

For vapor that enters the condenser as superheated vapor at a

temperature Tv instead of as saturated vapor:

Rate of heat transfer

This relation is convenient to use to

determine the Reynolds number when the
condensation heat transfer coefficient or the
rate of heat transfer is known.

The properties of the liquid should be

evaluated at the film temperature

The hfg should be evaluated at Tsat

38
 Heat Transfer Correlations for Film
Condensation ─ Vertical wall
Assumptions:
1. Both the plate and the vapor are
maintained at constant temperatures of Ts
and Tsat, respectively, and the temperature
across the liquid film varies linearly.
2. Heat transfer across the liquid film is by
pure conduction.
3. The velocity of the vapor is low (or zero)
so that it exerts no drag on the condensate
(no viscous shear on the liquid–vapor
interface).
4. The flow of the condensate is laminar
(Re<30) and the properties of the liquid
are constant.
5. The acceleration of the condensate layer is Height L and width b
negligible.
 Hydrodynamics
• Netwon’s second law of motion
Weight=Viscous shear force +Buoyancy force
or du
l g    y   bdx   l  bdx   v g    y   bdx 
dy
• Canceling the plate width b and solving for du/dy
du g  l  v     y 

dy l

• Integrating from y=0 (u =0) to y (u =u(y))

g  l   v   y2 
u( y)   y   (10-12)
l  2 
• The mass flow rate of the condensate at a location
x is determined from

m ( x)   l u ( y )dA   l u ( y )bdy (10-13)
A y 0

Substituting u(y) from Eq. 10–12 into Eq. 10–13

gb l  l  v   3
m ( x)  (10-14)
3l

whose derivative with respect to x is

dm gb l  l  v   d 
2

 (10-15)
dx l dx
 Thermal Considerations
• The rate of heat transfer from the vapor to the plate
through the liquid film

Tsat  Ts
dQ  h fg dm  kl  bdx 


dm kl b Tsat  Ts
  (10-16)
dx h fg 
• Equating Eqs. 10–15 and 10–16 and separating
the variables give
l kl  Tsat  Ts 
 d 
3
dx
g l  l   v  h fg (10-17)

• Integrating from x =0 (=0) to x (=(x)), the

liquid film thickness at x is determined to be
14
 4 l kl  Tsat  Ts  x 
 ( x)    (10-18)
 g l  l  v  h fg 
• Since the heat transfer across the liquid film is assumed to be by
pure conduction, the heat transfer coefficient can be expressed
through Newton’s law of cooling and Fourier law as
Tsat  Ts kl
q x  hx  Tsat  Ts   kl  hx  (10-19)
 
• Substituting (x) from Eq. 10–18, the local heat transfer coefficient
is determined to be
 g l  l   v  h k  3 14
fg l
hx    (10-20)
 4 l  Tsat  Ts  x 

• The average heat transfer coefficient over the entire plate is

 g l  l   v  h k
14
1 L 4
3

h   hx dx  hx  L  0.943 
fg l
 (10-21)
L 0 3  l  Tsat  Ts  L 
• It is observed to underpredict heat transfer
because it does not take into account the
effects of the nonlinear temperature profile in
the liquid film and the cooling of the liquid
below the saturation temperature.
• Both of these effects can be accounted for by
replacing hfg by modified h*fg to yield
 g l  l   v  h k
14
1 L 4
* 3

h   hx dx  hx  L  0.943 
fg l
 (10-22)
L 0 3  l  Tsat  Ts  L 

0 <Re<30
• When v«l (and thus l-v≈l). Using this
approximation and substituting Eqs. 10–14 and 10–18 at
x =L into the Reynolds number definition by noting that
x=L=kl/hx=L and havg=4/3hx=L (Eqs. 10–19 and 10–21)
give 3
4 g l  l   v  
3
4 g  l  kl  4 g  kl  (10-23)
3 2
Re   2    2  
3 l2
3l  hx  L  3 l  3havg / 4 

• Then the average heat transfer coefficient in terms of Re

becomes 1/ 3
 g  (10-24)
havg  1.47kl Re 1/ 3
 2  v  l
 l 

• The results obtained from the theoretical relations above

are in excellent agreement with the experimental results.
 Wavy Laminar Flow on Vertical
Plates
• The waves at the liquid–vapor interface tend to
increase heat transfer.
• Knowledge is based on experimental studies.
• The increase in heat transfer due to the wave effect is,
on average, about 20 percent, but it can exceed 50
percent.
• Based on his experimental studies, Kutateladze (1963)
recommended the following relation
1/ 3
Re kl  g 
havg , wavy   2 ;  v  l
1.08 Re  5.2   l 
1.22
 Turbulent Flow on Vertical Plates
• Labuntsov (1957) proposed the following relation
for the turbulent flow of condensate on vertical
plates: 1/ 3
Re kl  g 
havg ,turbulent  2
8750  58 Pr 0.5  
Re  253   l 
0.75

• The physical properties of the condensate are to be

evaluated at the film temperature.
Nondimensionalized Heat Transfer
Coefficients
 Dropwise Condensation
• One of the most effective mechanisms of heat transfer,
and extremely large heat transfer coefficients can be
achieved.
• Small droplets grow as a result of continued
condensation, coalesce into large droplets, and slide
down when they reach a certain size.
• Large heat transfer
coefficients enable designers
to achieve a specified heat
transfer rate with a smaller
surface area.
 Dropwise Condensation
• The challenge in dropwise condensation is not to
achieve it, but rather, to sustain it for prolonged
periods of time.
• Dropwise condensation has been studied
experimentally for a number of surface–fluid
combinations.
• Griffith (1983) recommends these simple
correlations for dropwise condensation of steam on
copper surfaces:
51,104  2044Tsat 22 0C  Tsat  100 0C
hdropwise  
255,310 Tsat  100 0C
 Flow Regimes
• The dimensionless parameter
controlling the transition between
regimes is the Reynolds number
defined as:

• Three prime flow regimes:

 Re < 30 ─ Laminar (wave-free)
 30 < Re < 1800 ─ Laminar (wavy)
 Re > 1800 ─ Turbulent
• The Reynolds number increases in
the flow direction.

52