Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach

Chapter 2
Transmission Lines
Applied Electromagnetics:
Early Transmission Lines Approach
Stuart M. Wentworth
Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-1

Wentworth 10/5/07, Wiley
Learning Objectives
• Develop equations for wave propagation on a transmission line
and define characteristic impedance and propagation
constant
• Investigate wave reflection from terminated transmission lines
and define input impedance and standing wave ratio
• Introduce the Smith chart, a graphical tool for the study of
transmission lines, and use it to develop impedance
matching networks
• Study the behavior of transient signals on a terminated
transmission line
• Investigate the dispersion of a signal pulse as it travels along a
transmission line

Ideal wires and transmission lines
Connecting wires must be considered as transmission line if
their length is a significant fraction of a wavelength

Transmission line examples

Distributed parameters for a section of T-Line
The general model for T-Line resembles twin-lead cable

Distributed parameters at high frequencies
Coaxial Cable Twin-Lead Cable
R’ (/m) 1 1 1  f 1 f
  
2  a b  c a c
L’ (H/m)  b   d 
ln   cosh 1  
2  a    2a 
G’ (S/m) 2 d  d
 
ln b
a 
cosh 1 d
2a 
C’ (F/m) 2 
 
ln b
a 
cosh 1 d
2a 

Distributed parameter model
Circuit analysis of the distributed parameter model yields
equations for wave propagation (the Telegraphist’s Equations)

Telegraphist’s Equations
i ( z, t )
Kirchhoff’s voltage law: v ( z, t )  v ( z  z, t )  i ( z , t ) R ' z  L ' z .
t
Divide both sides by z, and take the limit as z approaches zero:
v ( z , t )  v ( z  z , t ) i ( z , t )
lim  i ( z, t ) R '  L ' .
z  0 z t
The limit on the left is the definition of a derivative, so

v ( z , t ) i ( z , t )
  i ( z, t ) R ' L ' .
z t
Likewise, by Kirchhoff’s current law Telegraphist’s

v ( z  z , t ) Equations
i ( z , t )  i ( z  z , t )  v( z  z , t )G ' z  C ' z .
t
i ( z , t ) v ( z , t )
Leading to   v ( z , t )G '  C ' .
z t

Time-harmonic waves on T-Line
If v( z , t )  V ( z ) cos(t   ),
then v( z , t )  Re V ( z )e 
j t  
  Re V ( z )e jt 
   s 
where the phasor is Vs ( z )  V  z  e j (likewise I s ( z )  I  z  e j )
v( z , t ) i ( z , t )
Phasor time derivative:  jVs ( z ) and  j I s ( z )
t t
Telegraphist’s equations for time-harmonic fields are then
dVs ( z ) dI s ( z )
   R ' j L ' I ( z ) , and    G ' jC ' V ( z ) .
dz dz

The traveling wave equations
Taking the position derivative of both sides of the Vs(z)
expression leads to
d 2Vs ( z )
  2Vs ( z )  0,
dz 2
wherepropagation constant
   R ' j L '   G '  j C '     j  .
Solving the differential equation, we arrive at a general solution

Vs ( z )  Vo e  z  Vo e   z .
The instantaneous form is

v( z , t )  Vo e  z cos  t   z   Voe  z cos  t   z  . traveling
In a like manner, we find wave
i ( z , t )  I o e  z cos  t   z   I oe  z cos  t   z  . equations

Characteristic impedance Zo
Given the traveling wave equations:
v( z , t )  Vo e  z cos  t   z   Voe  z cos  t   z 
i ( z , t )  I o e  z cos  t   z   I oe  z cos  t   z 
Characteristic impedance Zo is the ratio of voltage to current wave

amplitudes in one direction, or
Vo Vo
Zo     
Io Io
Inserting the wave equations into the phasor-form Telegraphist’s

equations we find
R ' j L '
Zo 
G ' jC '
L'
For low loss line, this becomes Z o 
C'
Low-loss and lossless line
Low loss lines feature high conductivity conductors and low loss
dielectrics such that R’ << L’ and G’ << C’. For this case,
L'
  j L ' C '    j  and Z o  .
C'
phase constant    L ' C '
 1
propagation velocity u p  
 L 'C '
For low-loss coaxial cable, we find
c 60  b 
up  and Z o  ln   
r r  a 

Example 2.1 – Coaxial Cable
A 1.0 mm diameter copper wire is surrounded by a 1.0 mm
thickness of Teflon, then jacketed by copper. Assuming this
coaxial cable is lossless, we want to find the propagation velocity,
up, and the characteristic impedance, Zo.
For Teflon, r = 2.1 from Appendix E, so
m
3x108
c s  2.1x108 m
up  
r 2.1 s
For Zo, we have a = 0.50 mm and b = 1.5 mm, so
60  b  60  1.5 
Zo  ln    ln    46 .
r  a  2.1  0.5 

Power Transmission
average power for a time- 1
harmonic wave: Pave  z   Re Vs I s* 
2
A +z propagating voltage   j z  j  j  z
wave on a lossless line: Vs  Vo e  Vo e e
where Vo has a magnitude ( Vo ) and a phase ().
Is is in phase with Vs for a Vo

lossless line, so I s  I o e j e  j  z  e j e j  z
Zo
2
1   j  j  z Vo  j  j  z  1 Vo
 

thus Pave ( z )  Re  Vo e e e e 
2  Zo  2 Z o

For a lossy line, Is is no longer in phase with Vs so

2
1 Vo
Z o  Z o e j , leading to Pave

( z)  e2 z cos 
2 Zo

Example 2.2 – power transmission in coax
A copper conductor coaxial cable (a = 1.0 mm, b = 3.0 mm) with thick outer
conductor is filled with a nonmagnetic dielectric with r = 5.0 and tan = 0.00010
measured at 2.0 GHz. Find power lost per meter length of this cable.
We will find in chapter 6 that the loss tangent is related to an effective

S
conductivity, eff, of the dielectric:  eff   tan   55.6 x 106 .
m
This can be used in the Table 2.1 equation for R’.
From the table, R’=2.48 /m, L’=220nH/m, C’=253pF/m and G’=318S/m.
Then
1 Np
   R ' j L '  G ' jC '   0.0467  j 93.73 , so   0.0467
m m
We don’t know the voltage amplitude, so we calculate the power loss as a ratio:

Pave ( z  1m)

 e 2 (1m )  0.91
Pave ( z  0m)

Decibels (dB)
Decibels
- a logarithmic scale useful for expressing very large or very small ratios
P 
- gain in decibels: G ( dB )  10 log  out .
 Pin 
- The 0.91 ratio of Example 2.2 becomes G(dB) =10 log(0.91) = -0.4 dB
(note that a negative gain is an attenuation)
- To express absolute power in the decibel scale, a reference power is


needed. The dBm scale is referenced to 1 mW: G ( dBm )  10 log 
P .

 1 mW 
- Decibels are related to Nepers by 1 Np  8.686 dB .

T-Line terminated in impedance ZL
at z = 0 we have
Vs ( z  0) Vo e  (0)  Vo e   (0) Vo  Vo

ZL     (0)    (0)
  
I s ( z  0) I o e  Io e Io  Io
Vo Vo Vo  Vo

Since Z o     , then Z L  Z o 
Io Io Vo  Vo

Voltage wave incident on terminated T-Line
Z L  Zo
Rearranging, Vo  Vo   LVo
Z L  Zo
Where L is the reflection coefficient and is a measure of the impedance

mismatch at the load.

Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)
Vmax
VSWR 
Vmin
1  L

1  L

Equivalent input impedance for a terminated line
Looking into the line at z = -l, input impedance Zin is
V ( z  l ) Vo e  l  Vo e  l
Z in     l   l
Zo.
I ( z  l ) V e
o
V e
o
Z L  jZ o tan(  l )
For a lossless line, Z in  Z o
Z o  jZ L tan(  l )

Impedance values for R, L and C
Complex loads may be modeled using resistor, inductor

and capacitor lumped elements

Standing wave pattern for shorted load
 L  1
VSWR  
for lossless line

Z in  jZ o tan  l

Standing wave pattern for open load
 L  1
VSWR  
for lossless line

Z in   jZ o cot  l

The complete circuit
Z in
Vin  VSS
Z S  Z in
 V ( z  -l ).
 
V ( z )  Vo e   z  Vo e   z  Vo e   z   L e   z .
 Vin
V 
o
e   l   L e  l
VL  V ( z  0)  Vo  1   L  .

Example 2.3 circuit: find voltage across the load
ZL  Zo
L 
ZL  Zo
100  50 1
  .
100  50 3
convert source voltage to phasor: VSS  10e j 30

V.
Z L  jZ o tan(  l )
for a lossless T-Line, Z in  Z o .
Z o  jZ L tan(  l )
2 
  Z o2
Since  l   , tan  l  tan   , and Z in   25.
 4 2 2 ZL
(continue Example 2.3)
Z in  25 
Vin  Vss  10e j 30

 5e j 30
V.
Z s  Z in 25  25
For the lossless case,  = j and l = j l = j/2. So


j 30
Vin 5e

  j 60

V   7.5e V.
1 e
o  l  l
  Le  j 90
 
e e j 90
3
VL  V o

 1   L   7.5e  j 60

 1 1
3   10e  j 60

V.
Converting to instantaneous form: v L  10 cos  t  60 V .  

ML2.3: When must wires be treated as T-Line?
Compare VL vs line length for T-Line and lumped element models
Z IN 1 RL  Z o
T-Line: VL  Vo  1   L  where Vo  Vs j 2 d  j 2 d
and  L  .
Z IN  Rs e  Le RL  Z o
 j  jZ o L'
Lumped element: j L  j 2 dZ o and  where Z o 
C 2 d C'
j Z1
Letting Z1  RL and Z 2  RS  j L , VL  Vs
C Z1  Z 2

Cont. ML2.3
Our example:
RL = RS = 200 , and Zo = 50 .
 connecting wire begins to impact

load voltage, especially phase, at
less than 0.01.
 appreciable difference between

the lumped and the distributed
element model begins at about
0.10.

The Smith Chart
• “Transmission line
calculator” created in
the 1930s by Philip
H. Smith
• Most useful for

lossless T-Lines
• Used to find
impedance and
reflection coefficient
at any point along a
terminated T-Line

Equivalent terminated T-Lines
Input impedance at an
arbitrary point along a T-
Line can be used to create an
equivalent terminated T-
Line

Creating the Smith Chart
ZL
 Normalized load resistance z L 
Zo
Z L  Zo zL  1
 L  
Z L  Z o zL  1
 At a point z along the T-Line,

Z IN
o Normalized impedance z IN 
Zo
j 2 z z IN  1
o    Le    Re  j IM
z IN  1

Normalized resistance and reactance circles
2 2 2 2
 r   1   1 1
  Re  1
2
  Re     IM      IM    
2

 r 1   r 1  x x

Smith Chart from MATLAB 2.4
j1
j0.5 j2
j0.2
0
0.5 1 2 4
-j0.2
-j0.5 -j2
-j1

Using the Smith Chart – normalized load
Smith Chart is a plot of normalized impedance: zL = r + jx

Normalized load
To locate
zL = 1 + j2
on the Smith Chart,
find the intersection
of the r = 1 circle and
the jx = +j2 “circle”
Drill 2.11: locating points on Smith chart
Locate the points on the
Smith chart if Zo = 50 for
the following loads:
(a) ZL = 0
(b) ZL = ∞
(c) ZL = 100 + j100 

(d) ZL = 100 – j100 
(e) ZL =50 

Reflection coefficient
 Smith Chart is a plot

of reflection coefficient:
   Re  j Im   e j
 At z = 1 + j2, we see from

the Smith Chart
  0.7 and    45
Moving along a T-Line
• movement along T-Line

corresponds to movement
along a constant || circle on
the Smith Chart
•One revolution of the

constant || circle corresponds
to a half wavelength travel
Impedance measurement
Probe measures electric

field amplitude
4
Short
3.5
3
Load impedance
Probe Voltage
found by 2.5
comparing its 2
field pattern with 1.5

Load
that of a short 1
termination 0.5
0
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
scale (cm)

Exp 2.4: load impedance measurement
1. Determine G and
voltage minima location
for shorted line
2. Determine VSWR and

draw || circle for load
3. Move from load minima

(a) to reference location
of load (b)
4. In the example,
zL=0.8 + j1.0, or
ZL = 40 + j50 
Exp 2.5: load impedance measurement
• Calibration short
determines length of
connection l to the
device to be tested
• moving from
measured impedance
ZinL a distance l
towards the load
finds ZL

Continue Exp 2.5 (50  T-Line)
• we measure ZINSC =+j128.
We normalize this and
locate point a
• the length of the line, l, is

from the location of a short
(b) to point (a): l = 0.191
• next, we measure ZINL = 30

–j 40  and locate (c)
• finally, we move a distance

l towards the load (d), and
find ZL = 65 + j65 .
Impedance matching
•  looking into a matched load is zero,

so all wave power enters the matching network
• if matching network only consists of reactive components (L,

C, lengths of lossless T-Line) then no power is dissipated in the
network and therefore all power is received by the load
Quarter-wave transformer
 Useful for resistive terminations
RL  jZ S tan  l
 Z IN  Z S
Z S  jRL tan  l
 At l = /4, l = /2 and tan l = ∞
Z S2
 Z IN   Z o , or ZS  Z o RL
RL
Impedance matching with Smith chart
Move from normalized load
impedance zL to the center of the
Smith chart where || = 0.
 Move along the constant ||

circle by adding sections of T-
Line

 Reactive components add ±jx

Exp. 2.6: simple matching network
Normalize load impedance:

zL = 0.22 + j0.50
Locate and draw || circle

Continue Exp.2.6
• Move along constant ||

circle a distance d from zL to
point 1 + j2
• Add -j2 = -j/(CZo)

Admittance of shunt stubs

Normalized admittance
• zL = 2 + j1
• yL = 1/zL = 0.4 – j0.20
This corresponds to a
point on the constant ||
circle opposite zL

Shorted stub admittance
• Zin = jZo tan(d)
• Any value of reactance can

be achieved by proper choice
of stub length

Shunt stub matching
(shorted stub)
• Locate zL and draw || circle

yshort
• Locate yL
• Move from yL towards
generator a distance d to reach yd
= 1 + jb circle
• Move from yshort towards
generator a distance l to 0-jb
• ytot = 1 (line is matched)
Shunt stub matching
(open ended stub)
• Locate zL and draw || circle

• Locate yL yopen
• Move from yL towards
generator a distance d to reach yd
= 1 + jb circle
• Move from yopen towards
generator a distance l to 0-jb
• ytot = 1 (line is matched)
Transients
 Transient voltages on a T-Line can be

modeled by a bounce diagram
Ro
 Initial voltage launched: Vo  VS
RS  Ro
l
 Transit time tl 
up
R  Ro R  Ro
 L  L , S  S
RL  Ro RS  Ro
 Using the bounce diagram, voltage at an
arbitrary point (say –l/2) at an arbitrary
time (say 2.5 tl ) is
V ( l 2, 2.5tl )  Vo (1   L   L  S )
Exp. 2.9
RL  Ro 125  75 1
 L   
RL  Ro 125  75 4
RS  Ro 25  75 1
 S   
RS  Ro 25  75 2
l 0.06m
tl    2ns
u p (0.1)(3 10 m / s)
8

Continue Exp. 2.9
The reflections eventually settle out, and in

RL
this example: V  VS  3.33V
RL  RS

Pulse input circuit

Bounce diagram for pulse response

Exp. 2.10: 4V pulse on circuit of Exp. 2.9

Triangular pulse
• Bounce diagram is
difficult to use for pulses that have sloped edges
• MATLAB 2.5 traces voltage at an arbitrary point on the line
for
a triangular pulse
• Program
Applied may be modified
Electromagnetics: for other
Early Transmission pulse shapes
Lines Approach Chap 2-59
Practical Application: Schottky-diode termination
 Impedance mismatch in digital logic is often countered by using
Schottky-diode terminations
 Signal reflections are reduced by clamping action of the diodes
 D1 clamps to Vcc: reflections causing voltage greater than Vcc
will be shunted to Vcc
 D2 clamps to ground: reflections causing negative voltage will be
shunted to ground

Reactive loads
 vL (t )   Voi  Voi (t )  U ( )
0 for   0
where U( )   and   t  tl
1 for   0
diL (t )
 vL (t )  L
dt
diL (t ) 2Voi
 L
dt
 Ro iL (t )  2Voi  iL (t ) 
Ro

1  e  Ro L
 U ( )
Inductive load
2.5
voltage at source end

2
1.5
0.5
 
VS (t )  Voi  Voi 2e  Ro L  1 U ( ) 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
time (ns)
2
vL (t )   Voi  Voi (t )  U ( )
voltage at load end

1.5
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
time (ns)

Capacitive load
2.5
voltage at load end 1.5
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
time (ns)

vL (t )  2Voi 1  e  Ro C
 U ( )
Time domain reflectometry (TDR)
Used to determine location and nature of a load or discontinuity

TDR

TDR

Exp. 2.11: TDR response
Given a Zo = 50 line with up = 0.6c

1
 Location of discontinuity: l  (0.6)(3 108 m / s )   (24 109 s)  2.2m
2
Vtot  V  1.50  1 1  0.5
 Nature of discontinuity:     0.5 and RL  50   150
V 1 1  0.5

Dispersion
Ideal pulse example
• Digital signals may be represented as a Fourier Series

• In realistic media, propagation velocity is a function of
frequency
• Different frequency components travel at different speeds, so the
pulse spreads as it propagates (dispersion)

Fourier series review
For even function symmetry (as in our example pulse)

N
f (t )  ao   an cos  not 
n 1
To / 2 To / 2
2 4
where ao   f (t ) dt and an   f (t ) cos  not  dt
To 0
To 0
12  n 
Our example pulse: ao = 1.2 V, an  sin  V
n  5 

Dispersion
more harmonics gives better model of the ideal pulse
7
6 N = 10
N = 100
5 N = 1000
4
volts
-1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
time (ns)

Dispersion
 f 
For a dielectric with  r  6   10 
, we can generate an  diagram.
 5  10 
2500
beta (radians/m) 2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
omega (Gigacycles/sec)

Dispersion
• original pulse (dashed) moving along line characterized by the
 diagram of the previous slide
• pulse is distorted by dispersion
8
7
6
5
4
Volts
3
2
1
0
-1
-2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
time (ns)

End of Chapter 2


Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach

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Chapter 2

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-1

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-2

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-3

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-4

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-5

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-6

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-7

The limit on the left is the definition of a derivative, so

Likewise, by Kirchhoff’s current law Telegraphist’s

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-8

where the phasor is Vs ( z )  V  z  e j (likewise I s ( z )  I  z  e j )

Telegraphist’s equations for time-harmonic fields are then

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-9

Solving the differential equation, we arrive at a general solution

The instantaneous form is

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-10

Characteristic impedance Zo is the ratio of voltage to current wave

Inserting the wave equations into the phasor-form Telegraphist’s

phase constant    L ' C '

For low-loss coaxial cable, we find

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-12

For Teflon, r = 2.1 from Appendix E, so

For Zo, we have a = 0.50 mm and b = 1.5 mm, so

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-13

Is is in phase with Vs for a Vo

For a lossy line, Is is no longer in phase with Vs so

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-14

We will find in chapter 6 that the loss tangent is related to an effective

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-15

- To express absolute power in the decibel scale, a reference power is

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-16

Vs ( z  0) Vo e  (0)  Vo e   (0) Vo  Vo

Vo Vo Vo  Vo

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-17

Where L is the reflection coefficient and is a measure of the impedance

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-18

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-19

Looking into the line at z = -l, input impedance Zin is

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-20

Complex loads may be modeled using resistor, inductor

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-21

for lossless line

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-22

for lossless line

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-23

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-24

convert source voltage to phasor: VSS  10e j 30

Vin  Vss  10e j 30

For the lossless case,  = j and l = j l = j/2. So

Converting to instantaneous form: v L  10 cos  t  60 V .  

Compare VL vs line length for T-Line and lumped element models

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-27

 connecting wire begins to impact

 appreciable difference between

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-28

• Most useful for

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-29

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-30

 At a point z along the T-Line,

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-31

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-32

Applied Electromagnetics: Early Transmission Lines Approach Chap 2-33