Nepal Telecom

Exam Preparation

(Level 7)

Dipak Kumar Nidhi

Transmission Line
 Line Equivalent Circuit

Every transmission line consists of circuit elements distributed along its length. Because
current flows through the conductors, the line has series inductance, and because there is
always a return path, which is normally another adjacent conductor, it has parallel
capacitance.

The series inductance and parallel capacitance are the dominant elements in the equivalent
circuit of lines, and are present even in theoretically perfect cases. But in real lines the
conductors are not perfect, so they also have some series resistance, and the dielectric or
insulation separating the two conductors is not perfect so it has some parallel resistance.

The series and parallel resistance are less significant than the inductance and
capacitance, unless there is a fault in the line.
 Line Equivalent Circuit

It is important to note that in the real line the elements are distributed continuously along
the line, and are not lumped at intervals along the length as shown.

Each section of the equivalent circuit looks like a low pass filter, so the effect of the
inductance and capacitance is to limit the bandwidth of the signals which the line can
transport, with higher frequencies being attenuated more than lower ones.

The series and parallel resistances result in losses down the line, reducing the ability
of the line to transport the signal power efficiently.
 Line Equivalent Circuit

It is important to note that in the real line the elements are distributed continuously along
the line, and are not lumped at intervals along the length as shown.

Each section of the equivalent circuit looks like a low pass filter, so the effect of the
inductance and capacitance is to limit the bandwidth of the signals which the line can
transport, with higher frequencies being attenuated more than lower ones.

The series and parallel resistances result in losses down the line, reducing the ability
of the line to transport the signal power efficiently.
 Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Radio waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared
• Optical
• Ultraviolet
• X-rays
• Gamma-rays
Classes of transmission media
 Guided Media
It is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media.
Signals being transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow
pathway by using physical links. 

Features:  
• High Speed
• Secure
• Used for comparatively shorter distances

There are 3 major types of guided media

1. Twisted-Pair Cable
2. Coaxial Cable
3. Fiber-Optical Cable
 GUIDED MEDIA

●Guided Media, Some thing physically , include twisted-pair

cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
●Twisted-pair cable and coaxial cable use metallic
(copper).
●Optical fiber is a glass or plastic cable that accepts and
transports signals in the form of light.
 Twisted-Pair Cable
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about
each other

Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable:

●Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP) Cable is the most common type of
telecommunication medium in use today.
●Frequency range is suitable for transmitting both data and voice.
●T.P consists of two conductors, each with its own colored plastic
insulation.
Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable:
●Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP) Cable has a metal foil or braided-mesh
covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors.
●Metal Casing prevents the penetration of electromagnetic noise.
●Eliminate Crosstalk, undesired effect of one channel to another
channel.
Twisted-pair
cable
UTP and STP
cables
 Table 7.1 Categories of unshielded twisted-pair
cables

7.12
UTP Connecter
UTP Performance
 UTP Cable vs STP Cable

S. No. Basis for comparison UTP (Unshielded twisted pair) STP (Shielded twisted pair)

1. Basic UTP is a cable with wires that STP is a twisted pair cable
are twisted together. enclosed in foil or mesh
shield.
2. Noise and crosstalk High comparatively. Less susceptible to noise
generation and crosstalk.
3. Grounding cable Grounding cable Necessarily required
4. Ease of handling Easily installed as cables are Installation of cables is
smaller, lighter, and flexible. difficult comparatively.
5. Cost Cheaper and does not require Moderately expensive.
much maintenance.
6. Data Rates Slow comparatively. Provides high data rates
 Coaxial Cable
●Coaxial Cable has a single copper conductor a plastic layer provides
insulation. Coaxial has a central core conductor of solid copper
enclosed in an insulating sheath.
●Carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted-pair cable.
●Transmits information in two modes:
- Baseband mode (dedicated cable bandwidth)
- Broadband mode (cable bandwidth is split into separate
ranges)
●Different coaxial cable designs are categorized by their radio
government (RG) rating. Each RG number denotes a unique set of
physical specifications, thickness, type of inner insulator, the construction
of the shield, and the size and type of the outer casing.
Coaxial Cable
BNC Connectors
Coaxial Cable Performance
 Waveguide

• Waveguides are used to direct and propagate Electromagnetic waves from

one point to another.
• During the case of high frequencies; it seen that there is loss of
electromagnetic waves in transmission lines. This is mainly because of the
factors like radiation leakage and conduction resistance. To solve this
problem waveguides are widely used.
• Waveguides can direct the power where it is required.
• It can at the same time handle large amount of the power.
• Waveguide mode
TE (Transverse Electric) Mode
TM (Transverse Magnetic) Mode
 Optical Fiber
●Optical Fiber is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
●Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than
coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly
greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include
services such as video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of fiber optic
cabling is comparable to copper cabling; however, it is difficult to install.
●Light, a form of electromagnetic energy, travels at 300,000 kilometers/second. The
speed decreases as the medium through which the light travels becomes denser.
■ Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or
plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic. The
difference in density of the two materials must be such that a beam of light
moving through the core is reflected off the cladding instead of being
refracted into it. Information is encoded onto a beam of light as a series of on-
off flashes that represent 1 and 0.
Bending of light ray
Optical Fiber
Propagation Modes
Modes
 Multimode Step-Index
●Multimode step-index uses multiple beams of light. The density of the
core remains constant from the center to the edges. A beam of light
moves through the constant density in a straight line until it reaches the
interface of the core and the cladding. At the interface there is an abrupt
change of a lower density that alters the angle of the beam's motion.
●Multimode graded-index uses fiber with varying densities. Density is
highest at the center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at
the edge. Each density difference causes each beam to refract into a curve.
Varying the refraction varies the distance each beam travels in a given
period of time, resulting in different beams intersection at regular
intervals. Careful placement of the receiver at one of these intersections
allows the signal to be reconstructed with far greater precision.
●Single mode uses step-index fiber and a highly focused source of light
that limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
Fiber types
Fiber construction
Fiber-optic cable connectors
Optical fiber performance
 UNGUIDED MEDIA: WIRELESS
An unguided media type transmission is used to transmit electromagnetic
waves without using any of the physical transmission media. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless communication.

• Radio Waves
• Microwaves
• Infrared
Propagation methods
Frequency Bands
Wireless transmission waves
 Radio waves
●1kHz – 1GHz
●Relatively narrow (compared to microwave)
●Omni directional (all directions)
●□ good for long distances (sky propagation), interference with other
waves
●Can penetrate walls (Adv & disadv)
●Low data rate for digital communication.
Note

Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and
television, and paging systems.
 Microwaves
●1GHz – 300GHz (wide band)
●unidirectional
●sending & receiving antennas should be aligned, no interference
●Can not penetrate walls (Adv & disadv)
●high data rate.
●Requires permission from authorities
Note

Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones,

satellite networks,
and wireless LANs.
 Infrared
●300GHz – 300THz
●Can not penetrate walls (short range communication, no
interference)
●Remote control, wireless keyboard(IrDA port,….

Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using
line-of-sight propagation.
 References
1. William Stallings
Data and Computer Communications3GPP
2. 4G Americas (3G Americas)
3. DoCoMo
4. Wikipedia
Thanks