Major General Mulugeta Buli Poly

Technic College

Servicing and Maintaining Electrical

Components in Hybrid Electric Vehicles

By: Zinabu Solomon (Lect.)

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 Introduction, Need of Hybrid Vehicles
 Conventional vehicles with IC engines provide good performance and
long operating range by utilizing the high-energy-density of petroleum
fuels.
 However, conventional IC engine vehicles have the disadvantages of
poor fuel economy and environmental pollution.
 The main reasons for their poor fuel economy are
1. mismatch of engine fuel efficiency characteristics with the real
operation requirement
2. dissipation of vehicle kinetic energy during braking, especially
while operating in urban areas; and
3. low efficiency of hydraulic transmission in current automobiles in
stop-and-go driving patterns.
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The internal combustion engines long used in vehicle powertrains

have been continually evolving, but with environmentally motivated

CO2 reduction initiatives being promoted globally since the turn of

the century, the limit of regulatory compliance achievable with

conventional combustion-engine vehicles alone is expected to arrive

sometime between 2020 and 2025.

 As a result, the introduction of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) and

electric vehicles (EVs) as environmentally conscious alternatives is

expected to grow worldwide..

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 A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) has two types of energy storage

units, electricity and fuel.

 Electricity means that a battery (sometimes assisted by ultra caps) is

used to store the energy, and that an electromotor (from now on

called motor) will be used as traction motor.
 Fuel means that a tank is required, and that an Internal Combustion

Engine (ICE, from now on called engine) is used to generate

mechanical power, or that a fuel cell will be used to convert fuel to
electrical energy.

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 Basically, an Electric Vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that no longer relies solely on an

Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) as the only propulsion mechanism, but rather
uses an electric drive system as a replacement, or to enhance, the ICE.

 Roughly speaking, three types of electrically propelled vehicles can be

distinguished.

1. Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV)

 Combines an ICE and an electric motor within the drive train. Mostly, the
electric motor supports the ICE for fuel economy and/or performance.The
vehicle is then either propelled by the combustion engine or the electric drive.

 HEVs are powered by an ICE and by an electric motor that uses energy stored in

a battery. The battery is charged through regenerative braking and by the ICE.
The vehicle cannot be plugged in to charge.
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2. Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle
 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle (PHEV) is a vehicle equipped, in general, with
a larger battery compared to HEVs, that allows recharging of the battery via
home outlets or at charging stations.
 While in most cases both the electric drive and the ICE are able to propel the

vehicle, some vehicles use solely the electric drive. In this latter case the ICE
can be used to recharge the battery or directly produce electricity for the electric
drive.
 Also, in most cases PHEVs can be used in a full electric mode if there is enough

energy stored in the battery. This allows one to select when and where to release
pollutants.
 This functionality shall be used in some applications discussed in the book.
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3. Full Electric Vehicle (FEV)
 Runs solely on an electric drive system. As with PHEVs their batteries are

large and can be recharged in charging stations or at home. Since there are no
pollutants released while driving, these vehicles are often marketed as zero-
emission vehicles.
 Naturally, this is not exactly a correct terminology, since the recharging of the

batteries will cause emissions depending on the actual emissions of the power
generation in the country.
 Due to the fact that many power plants are located in less populated areas, the

use of FEVs still has beneficial effects on emissions in population centers.

 Such vehicles may be considered as filters for turning dirty into clean energy.

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 Of these three types, we shall distinguish PHEVs and FEVs from

HEVs, and we shall denote the former as plug-in EVs, to

emphasize that they continuously have to recharge their batteries.
In Figure below, a graphical overview over the various EV types
is given.

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Despite such recent promising signals, still the percentage of traveling EV remains very
low at a global scale. Some of the main factors hindering the widespread adoption of
EVs from the point of view of customers are as follows:

1. Price: EVs have, to date, been expensive, even when subsidized. A major factor in the
cost of such vehicles is the cost of the battery.

2. Vehicle size: EVs are sometimes small with limited luggage space to reduce energy
consumption, or to accommodate batteries (in some hybrid vehicles).

3. Long charging times: Charging times for plug-in EVs can be long. Fast charging
methods can service average vehicles in about 30 minutes.

4. Limited range: Maximum ranges of less than 300 km in favorable conditions are not
unusual for EVs, and this reduces significantly when airconditioning or heating is
switched on.

Fig below: Typical EV configuration. Illustration of control, electric and mechanical links .
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 Components of Hybrid electric vehicles

 Batteries

 Electric vehicles require on-board energy storage devices that store energy in

a form which is easily converted to electricity in an efficient and cost-

effective way.
 Batteries are presently the most favored energy storage devices.

 In particular, lithium-ion batteries are the most attractive option for EVs and

PHEVs given their high energy and power densities.

 A single lithium-ion battery cell provides a voltage of about 3V. Several cells

are connected in series to obtain the voltage levels necessary for electric
vehicles. Strings of cells, connected in parallel, are packed into modules.
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 Modules are assembled into packs to obtain the proper voltage and current

specifications.

The construction of modules and packs is delicate and aside from the pure

electrical properties, several other factors must be considered at the design stage.

The cells, modules and packs have to be monitored to avoid damage to the cells.

The cells must be actively balanced so that they are in equal states. Cells must be

maintained within a certain temperature range.

The pack must also protect the battery in case of a collision or a fire, and gases

must be vented safely.

A battery management system (BMS) is required to monitor and maintain various

parameters (voltage, current, temperature) that ensure proper operation of the pack.

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 The pack is sensitive to overheating and should be kept at temperatures between 0-

45°C, depending on battery chemistry. Temperatures around 25°C are ideal. This

means that efficient control of cooling and heating is required.

 Although existing lithium-ion battery technology allows for the construction of

battery systems that provide EVs with reasonable performance and range, future

battery systems with improved energy densities would provide better ranges.

Developing batteries with higher storage capacities is a focal point for research

efforts around the world. Battery development is, however, a very slow process.

Lithium-ion battery technology is continuously being improved and will likely be the

preferred choice for at least the next few years.

Current research efforts aim to develop batteries that can make EVs comparable to

petrol-driven vehicles vis-à-vis range.

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Three major types of batteries that are used in hybrid cars are lead-acid,

nickel metal hydride (NiMH) and lithium-ion (L-ion).

The battery pack of the second generation Toyota Prius consists of 28

Panasonic prismatic nickel metal hydride modules-each containing six 1.2

volt cells-connected in series to produce a nominal voltage of 201.6 DC

volts.

The total number of cells is 168, compared with 228 cells packaged in 38

modules in the first generation Prius. The pack is positioned behind the back

seat.

The weight of the complete battery pack is 53.3 kg. The discharge power

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capability of the Prius pack is about 20 kW at 50 percent state-of-charge.
  The power capability increases with higher temperatures and decreases at lower

temperatures. The Prius has a computer that’s solely dedicated to keeping the
Prius battery at the optimum temperature and optimum charge level.
 The Prius supplies conditioned air from the cabin as thermal management for

cooling the batteries. The air is drawn by a 12-volt blower installed above the
driver’s side rear tire well.

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 Table: Batteries for Electric Vehicle

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 Battery Advantages Disadvantages Remarks

Sodium- High energy and power Thermal enclosure Promising mid-term

nickel densities. Long life and thermal option but currently
chloride (over 1000 cycles). management are over twice the cost of
expensive.
Nickel- High power density, Expensive. Promising mid-term
metal Long cycle life (over option but currently
hydride 2000 cycles). over twice the cost
Twice the energy
storage of lead-acid
Zinc–air High energy density. Infrastructural Interesting longer-term
Rapid mechanical needs. option for rapid
recharging (3 minutes). recharging
Nickel–iron High energy density. Hydrogen emitted – Research to increase
Long life (over 1000 safety concerns. efficiency and overcome
deep charge/discharge Periodic topping up disadvantage could lead
cycles). with water to a long term EV
needed. battery.
Nickel– High energy density. Fairly expensive Already used in
hydrogen Robust and reliable, no (due to hand communications
overcharge/over‑ assembly). satellites. Cost
discharge damage. competitive for high
18 Very long life. cycle operations.
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  Electric Motor Drive Systems

Motors are the "work horses" of Hybrid Electric Vehicle drive systems. The

electric traction motor drives the wheels of the vehicle.

Unlike a traditional vehicle, where the engine must "ramp up" before full

torque can be provided, an electric motor provides full torque at low speeds.
The motor also has low noise and high efficiency. Other characteristics

include excellent "off the line" acceleration, good drive control, good fault
tolerance and flexibility in relation to voltage fluctuations.
The most common motors in EVs are the induction motor (IM), the

permanent magnet synchronous motor (PMSM), the direct current motor

(DCM) and the switched reluctance motor (SRM).
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  It is also possible to use the axial flux motor (AFM), the transverse flux motor

(TFM) or synchronous reluctance motors (SyncRM).

 These have only recently been developed for vehicle applications and currently

exist as prototypes or experimental motors.

 In the selection and design of electric motors for automotive applications,

weight, volume, cost, energy efficiency and reliability are important criteria to
consider.
 In some electric vehicles, two or four motors are used instead of one. This

creates the possibility of integrating motors into the wheels, which increases the
controllability of the vehicle. However, the inclusion of several motors requires
several converters and more transmission devices, resulting in increased costs.

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  Power Electronic Components

The power electronic components addressed in this section are the power

converters and their semiconductor components.

The main converter types are DC/ AC converters, often called inverters;

AC/DC converters, often called rectifiers; and DC/DC converters. The

converters should fit the desired voltage, current rating and switching
frequency.
 The latter should be high enough to reduce volume, noise, filter size and EMI

and low enough to reduce energy losses.

High conversion efficiency is valuable and the converters need to be able to

operate in tough environments. A proper cooling arrangement is also required.

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  DC/AC converter

 is located between the battery and electric motor. The converter is

bidirectional, which allows for regeneration (energy is fed from

the motor to the battery) during braking.
 The converter is typically a pulse width modulated (PWM)

converter, but can be a multi-level converter. PWM converters

switch the battery voltage on and off in order to provide a certain
voltage to the motor.
 Multi-level converters consist of many low voltage converters,

each connected to a fraction of the battery.

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  AC/DC converter

 is located between the generator (which in turn is connected to the ICE)

and the traction battery. These converters are used in series hybrids or in
series–parallel hybrids.
 If the semiconductor components of the AC/ DC converter are transistors

then the electric machine may operate not only as a generator but also as a
motor. It can thus be used as a starter motor for the ICE.
 DC/DC converter

 with 12V output for auxiliary equipment (windshield wipers, heating,

radio, lights etc.). Replaces the alternator in an ordinary car.

 The DC/ DC converter is connected to a 12V battery.

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  Battery Chargers

 Electric vehicles are usually recharged whilst parked. However it is also

possible to charge EVs whilst they are in motion (continuous charging)

using ‘slide-in’ technologies.

Different types of chargers are available, including off-board fast chargers,

on-board chargers, and ‘slide-in’ wireless chargers. The latter combine

transmission coils in the ground with receiving coils in vehicles.

 Chargers can also be conductive or inductive. For a conductive charger,

power flows through metal-to-metal contacts. In contrast, inductive

coupling transfers power magnetically rather than via direct electrical

24 contact.
 Off-board chargers

 Can be large and bulky when volume is not a vital

constraint.
 This keeps costs down, and off-board chargers can be placed

at charging stations similar to ordinary petrol stations.

 This arrangement also allows for high-power fast charging.

 A disadvantage compared to on-board charging is lower

availability since the number of charging stations will always

be limited.

25 Charging times are typically 15 minutes, but can be more.

  On-board chargers

 They are more common at present.

 On-board charging means that vehicles can be charged

wherever electricity is available but with the disadvantage of

slower charging and extra weight, cost and space requirements
within vehicles.
 On-board charging typically requires 1 hour of charging per

20km^2 .
 Increasing the charging speed would require higher power and

a larger charger, and thus additional weight, volume and cost.

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 To alleviate some of the abovementioned disadvantages it is possible to

utilize traction drive system components to construct an integrated charger.

 A battery charger is basically a voltage transformer with a converter and

such a charger can be made by using the electrical motor and the power

electronic converter.

Wireless systems allow for inductive charging at dedicated parking spots or

whilst driving. Wireless charging could be an important enabler for electro

mobility and is currently a focal point for R&D efforts.

The efficiency is however lower compared to conductive charging and

there are several safety concerns.

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  Auxiliary Loads

High voltage auxiliary loads (100-500V) like electric climate control and power

steering need relatively high power from high voltage traction batteries. Power

consumption must be considered carefully when designing vehicle systems and

controllers.

 Low outdoor temperature, for instance, could result in a high portion of the

available vehicle power being used for climate control. In HEVs, the ICE can be

used to provide heat due to engine losses, but cold weather will result in shorter

driving ranges for hybrids operated in all-electric mode.

Furthermore, it is important to consider electromagnetic capability (EMC) when

dealing with the auxiliary loads, so that the loads, the drive system or cables do not

28 disturb other loads in the system.

  Such as power steering and air conditioning are powered by

electric motors instead of being attached to the combustion

engine.

 This allows efficiency gains as the accessories can run at a

constant speed or can be switched off, regardless of how fast the

combustion engine is running.

 Especially in long haul trucks, electrical power steering saves a

lot of energy.

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  Electric cooling compressor

Used to keep the batteries from overheating, may also be used to cool the

passenger compartment. Note that an alternator may still be used to charge the

12V battery in hybrid vehicles. Otherwise, the 12V battery can be charged using a

DC/DC converter and a traction battery.

High voltage cables

 DC cables between battery and power electronics and cables between power

electronics and the electric machine (unless those components are placed adjacent

to each other).

May have a total weight of around 10kg in hybrid vehicles but may be lower for a

pure electric vehicle since the battery, motor and converter can be placed closer to

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one other.
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 FIG: Conceptual illustration of a general EV configuration

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 Regenerative Braking
 Regenerative braking is an energy recycling method used on hybrid and

electric cars.
The idea is to convert the kinetic energy (which is usually lost as heat

during braking) into usable electricity to recharge the battery pack.

Energy is usually captured by using the main electric motor as a generator,

which is connected to the wheels automatically when braking is started.

 The kinetic energy of the vehicle is used to drive the electric motor

during regenerative braking. This causes the vehicle to slow down, thus
reducing the amount of friction at the brake lining needed to slow the car,
resulting improved brake pad service life.
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 Classification of Hybrid Electric Vehicles
 Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) represent a technological cross between

conventional automobiles and electric vehicles.

 They combine an electric drivetrain, including battery or other energy

storage device, with a quickly re-fuelable power source (RPS). RPS can
be internal combustion engine (gasoline or diesel), fuel cell or gas
turbine.
 In present commercial HEVs as RPS is used internal combustion engine,

which is proved technology.

 This RPS recharges the electrical storage device (battery or super-

capacitor) and may drive the wheels directly together with the electric
34 motor.
 That can be achieved, either through a direct mechanical

drivetrain or indirectly by providing electric power to the motor.

If ICEs function is to produce electricity to the motor and to

recharge the storage device, with only the traction motor

driving the wheels, this is a series hybrid.
 If ICE can drive the wheels directly (in parallel with the

electric motor), this is a parallel hybrid.

 Combination of parallel and serial hybrid energy patterns in

one HEV concept defines parallel/serial hybrid system or also

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called combine hybrid.
  Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) can be classified into three kinds:

series hybrids, parallel hybrids, and series–parallel hybrids (dual

mode).
 These classifications refer to the way in which electric drive

systems (battery, power electronic converter, and electric motor)

are connected with mechanical drive systems (fuel tank, Internal
Combustion Engine (ICE), transmission and differential).
 A plug-in HEV (PHEV) is a hybrid vehicle whose battery is

charged externally.
 A pure electric vehicle (EV or BEV) has no fuel tank and no ICE.
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 a) Series hybrid
 A series hybrid drive train is a drive train in which two electrical

power sources feed a single electrical power plant (electric motor)

that propels the vehicle.
 The electric motor is the only means of providing power to the

wheels. The generator both charges a battery and powers an

electric motor that moves the vehicle.
 When large amounts of power are required, the motor draws

electricity from both the batteries and the generator.

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 
 Since the main on-board energy carrier for propulsion is gasoline, not

the electricity, this type of vehicle generally is categorized as Serial

Hybrid Electric Vehicle (SHEV).

 It is "serial" because of the energy transformation process during the driving

cycle. ICE produces mechanical power Pice that propels the rotor of the electric

generator.

 The generator produces electrical power , which with the additional power

from the traction battery powers the TM (Peg+Ptb=Pel).

 Traction motor produces mechanical power that propels the car.

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 In the process of vehicle deceleration TM changes into generator regime

gaining recuperative role same as in EVs.

 It brakes the car and saves partial kinetic energy of the vehicle by charging

the traction battery.

 In a series configuration, all of the traction power is provided only by the

TM, which obtains electricity directly from the ICE-EG or from the TB.
 There are several energy path-ways in serial HEV concept: engine to

generator to traction motor energy pathway (ICE→EG→TM), battery to

traction motor pathway (TB→TM), battery being recharged from the
engine (ICE→TB) and regenerative braking energy pathway (TM→TB).

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Advantages of series hybrid vehicles:
→ Series HEV design results in a simpler mechanical connection to the wheels than
parallel hybrids, which allows more freedom in component placement.
→ There is no mechanical connection between the engine and the driven wheels.

Consequently, the engine can be potentially operated at any point on its speed–
torque (power) map.
→ Because electric motors have a torque–speed profile that is very close to the ideal
for traction, the drive train may not need multigear transmission. Therefore, the
structure of the drive train can be greatly simplified and is of less cost.
Furthermore, two motors may be used, each powering a single wheel, and the
mechanical differential can be removed.
→ The control strategy of the drive train may be simple, compared to other
configurations, because of its fully mechanical decoupling between the engine and
40 wheels.
Disadvantages of series hybrid vehicles:
→ The energy from the engine changes its form twice to reach its destination—
driven wheels (mechanical to electrical in the generator and electrical to
mechanical in the traction motor). The inefficiencies of the generator and traction
motor may cause significant losses.
→ The generator adds additional weight and cost.

→ Because the traction motor is the only power plant propelling the vehicle, it must

be sized to produce enough power for optimal vehicle performance in terms of

acceleration and grade ability.
 Series hybrid configurations already exist a long time: diesel-electric locomotives,

hydraulic earth moving machines, diesel-electric power groups, loaders.

 Some car production companies have series production of SHEVs which like

automaker Chevrolet with the model Volt.

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 b) Parallel hybrid
 A parallel hybrid drive train is a drive train in which the engine supplies its

mechanical power directly to the driven wheels in a manner similar to a

conventional IC engine vehicle.
 The engine is assisted by an electric motor that is mechanically coupled to the

driveline.
 The powers of the engine and electric motor are coupled together by

mechanical coupling.
 The distinguished feature of this architecture is that two mechanical powers

from the engine and electric motor are added together by a mechanical
coupler.
 All the possible operating modes mentioned in the series hybrid drive train are

44 still effective.
 
 In parallel hybrids, both the ICE and the electric TM can drive the

wheels.
 Both machines are connected to the same drive-shaft and each

provides separate drive power and .

 Commercially this solution is called a mild hybrid system, is to use

the motor only as a power booster and for regenerative braking.

 With no “only-electric” operation, the TM and storage device may

be relatively small and thus less expensive.

 Parallel design offers the advantage of drive system redundancy. If

either of the drive systems should fail (ICE or TB-TM), the other
system would still be available to move the vehicle for service.
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 A parallel hybrid usually provides better highway fuel economy, due to its

efficient ICE loading at steady highway speeds and less mass than its series
counterpart.
 Both the ICE and the electric drive system (battery and electric motor) can be

used at the same time to cope with peak loads and to provide extra acceleration.
 It also provides the ability to withstand long uphill grades.

 When the vehicle is using electrical traction power only, or during brake while

regenerating energy, the ICE is not running (it is disconnected by a clutch) or is

not powered (it rotates in an idling manner).
 This concept is successfully commercially implemented in Honda Civic Hybrid

and the new improved model Honda Insight.

 Commercially this solution is called a mild hybrid system, is to use the motor

46 only as a power booster and for regenerative braking.

Advantages of parallel hybrid vehicles:
 Total efficiency is higher during cruising and long-distance highway driving.

 Large flexibility to switch between electric and ICE power.

 Compared to series hybrids, the electromotor can be designed less powerful

than the ICE, as it is assisting traction. Only one electrical motor/generator is

required.

Disadvantage of parallel hybrid vehicles:

 Rather complicated system.

 The ICE doesn’t operate in a narrow or constant RPM range, thus efficiency

drops at low rotation speed.

 As the ICE is not decoupled from the wheels, the battery cannot be charged

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at standstill.
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C) Combined hybrid
 Combined hybrid systems have features of both series and parallel

hybrids. There is a double connection between the engine and the drive
axle: mechanical and electrical.
 This split power path allows interconnecting mechanical and electrical

power, at some cost in complexity.

 Power-split devices are incorporated in the powertrain. The power to the

wheels can be either mechanical or electrical or both. This is also the case
in parallel hybrids.
 But the main principle behind the combined system is the decoupling of

the power supplied by the engine from the power demanded by the driver.
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 In order to obtain the benefits of both parallel a serial

concepts of HEV, car manufacturer Toyota have introduced

the serial-parallel concept of HEV, which is commercially
presented as Toyota Hybrid Synergy Drive (THS drive).
 This concept is implemented in the first and the most

successful commercial hybrid vehicle Toyota Prius.

 It is complex HEV system with serial and parallel energy

pathways synergistically combined in one propulsion

system.
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 
 The technical solution is based on using the planetary changing

gear (PCG) as mechanical power splitter.

 It enables the mechanical power from the shaft of the ICE to be

divided into two energy pathways creating two drive powers and
 First is parallel pathway, connecting PCG to the TM shaft and the

transmission to the wheels. Second is serial pathway connection

PCG to the separate electric generator (EG).
 Same as serial HEV, transformed into electrical, which with
additional power from TB, thought power control unit, powers the
TM.
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 All this characteristics categorize Toyota Prius as the most

successful hybrid-electric vehicle.

 It is on the market for more than ten years and has overcome

all the expectations with more than 3 million sold units

worldwide.
 It is the most fuel efficient mid-size petroleum-driven car, with

fuel efficiency approximately 4.6 [L/100km] in urban driving.

 It is widely known as the most ecological and
environmentally friendly family passenger car currently on the
market.
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Advantages of combined hybrid vehicles:
 Maximum flexibility to switch between electric and ICE power

 Decoupling of the power supplied by the engine from the power

demanded by the driver allows for a smaller, lighter, and more efficient
ICE design.

Disadvantage of combined hybrid vehicles:

 Very complicated system, more expensive than parallel hybrid.

 The efficiency of the power train transmission is dependent on the

amount of power being transmitted over the electrical path, as multiple

conversions, each with their own efficiency, lead to a lower efficiency of

56 that path (~70%) compared with the purely mechanical path (98%).
At lower speeds, this system operates as a series HEV,

while at high speeds, where the series powertrain is less

efficient, the engine takes over.

This system is more expensive than a pure parallel system

as it needs an extra generator, a mechanical split power

system and more computing power to control the dual

system.

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 Operating a Hybrid Vehicle

Starting/Shutting down a hybrid vehicle

 Press your foot on the brake.

 The Toyota Prius is designed not to start until the driver presses their foot firmly

on the brake.

 This is a safety feature intended to ensure the car can’t lurch forward or backward

when the electrical engine comes on. Place your right foot firmly on the brake

before attempting to start the car.

 Insert the key

 If your Toyota Prius came equipped with a smart key that does not need to be

inserted, you simply need to have it in the vehicle while the engine is running.

58 Otherwise, insert the key or key fob in the appropriate place.

  In most newer Prius models, you need only to have the smart key

in the cabin of the vehicle.

 In older Prius models, place the key into the ignition hole with the

fob's buttons-side facing towards the roof of the car without

turning the key.

 Press the power button.

 With your foot still firmly on the brake, press the power button.

Hold the button for a second, and listen for a beep to let you know

that the electrical engine is ‘starting’. If you do not hear a beep,

59
press the button again for a bit longer.
  Look for the “Welcome to Prius” screen.

 The display on the dashboard of the Prius will come on

when the engine starts. The screen will show the words,
“Welcome to Prius” before switching over to displaying
pertinent driver information.
 The word “READY” will appear on the screen to indicate

that the Prius is ready to be driven.

 Take the vehicle out of park and put it into drive in order to

begin driving.

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  Hold the brake pedal and bring the vehicle to complete stop when you

have to shut down.

 You should engage the parking brake and press the ‘P’ button that is

placed above the gear selector.

 Wait for the dash display to turn off when you hit the ‘Power’ switch.

 Ensure that the ‘Power’ switch is not illuminated.

Emergency Shutdown
 To shut off the vehicle before coming to a stop in an emergency, push and

hold down the power button for more than 3 seconds.

 This procedure may be useful at an accident scene in which the READY

indicator is on, Park cannot be selected, and the drive wheels remain in
61 motion
 Equipments needed for servicing hybrid vehicles

Megohmmeter

HV insulation has a very high resistance. The ohmmeter that is built into the type

of multimeter that technicians normally use can not put enough electrical pressure

to test the insolation used in the HV system. The megohmmeter is needed for this

purpose.

There are a several brands that are producing these meters specifically for the

automotive market. The meter can apply a 500 volt potential to the insulation to

see if there is any leakage.

 This can be used for testing HV cabling and electric motor windings. These

meters can be hazardous and must be used in accordance with the manufacturer’s

62 instructions
 Milli-ohmeter
This meter is primarily used for looking for short circuits in

the windings of electric motors.

 Once again, the conventional multi-meter technicians

currently use is not accurate enough.

Manufacturers depend on using the factory scan tool and

access to the TIS or Technical information service

63
 Maintenance Requirements
Because HEVs and PHEVs have ICEs, their maintenance requirements are similar

to those of conventional vehicles.

The electrical system (battery, motor, and associated electronics) requires minimal

scheduled maintenance. Brake systems on these vehicles typically last longer than

those on conventional vehicles, because regenerative braking reduces wear.

EVs typically require less maintenance than conventional vehicles or even HEVs

or PHEVs. Like their hybrid counterparts, their electrical systems require little to

no regular maintenance and their brake systems benefit from regenerative braking.

In addition, EVs often have far fewer moving parts and fewer fluids to change.

64
 1. Components on vehicles that have high voltages present need to be identified.

These will vary between different vehicle types. Typically these components
will be

i. High voltage battery

ii. High voltage battery controls

iii. High voltage wiring

iv. Inverter v. DC-DC converter

vi. Air conditioner compressor

vii. Motor/generator(s)

viii. Capacitors

65
Most manufactures make it easy to find the High Voltage service plug

because they usually locate this plug in the rear cargo compartment near
the battery. Most manufactures use a Slide-Up/Pull Back Lever type of
plug.
 Some manufacturers use a service plug which simply requires you to

turn it to a certain position without having to remove it from the vehicle.

After these plugs are removed you should wait about at least 30 minutes

for the onboard battery capacitors to dissipate their stored energy. After
that it would be safe to work around the High Voltage cables. If you do
decide to work on the Hybrid system itself then you will have to invest
in a pair of safety gloves rated at 1000 Volts.

66
1. Battery pack
 The battery pack contains the nickel-metal hydride cells,

system main relays, service plug connector, various

sensors and the battery ECU.
 The battery pack is only serviced as a whole assembly

from the manufacturer, but aftermarket repairers are now

carrying out repairs on packs that are no longer covered
by warranty. This is not being endorsed by the
manufacturers.
67
 The battery pack is probably the most critical component of an electric car

power train for cost, performances and weight, and, already for this, it
needs particular attention.
Modern batteries hold more and more power density and capacity, but the

drive range is still the most important lack for the spreading of electric
vehicles.
The basic functions of this unit are:

- Provide energy to the PM electric motor through the inverter device;

- Provide energy to the auxiliary system (i.e. heather/air conditioned, radio,

steering unit, etc.) through the 12V battery and the DC/DC converter;

- Store energy generated by the PM electric motor during regenerative

68braking.
 The likely failure modes identified for the battery system are:
- Short circuit;
- Overheating;
- Internal resistance increasing;
- Over-charge;
- Over/under-current.
 The battery pack is finally classified as CRITICAL for safety

concerns, and electronic system is vital to provide safe operations

of this important unit.
 In the following table are reported detection and protection

devices for each safety related failure mode.

69
 Table: Safety system of the battery pack: detection and protection

• The detection functions ensure that all the physical data are
accurately measured.
• It seems obvious that, without reliable acquisition of data at
intervals relevant with the application, electronics will not be able
to protect the lithium cells or to optimize their performances.
70
 The data to be measured in a lithium-based battery may vary with
the electrochemistry, but the following values are usually acquired
by sensors:
-each individual cell voltage;
- overall battery voltage;
- charge current;
- temperature of the cells;
- temperature of the electronics;
- ambient temperature inside the battery.

71
 Protection is the most critical type of action, since safety depends on

it. A common type of protection is the fast opening of a reversible

power switch, which isolates the battery system from the rectifier
and the load.
 This isolation prevents a number of abusive conditions being applied

to the battery. Over-charge is one example of an abusive condition

imposed by the charger; a short circuit would be an example of a
condition imposed by the load.
 When conditions come back to normal, the power switch closes. For

all these reasons is evident that apply preventive maintenance

activity to the electronic control system is as necessary as to the
72
battery itself.
 Table: Failure causes and PM tasks for the Li-Ion battery pack
73
 2. Vehicle control unit - Digital signal processor (DSP)
The Digital signal processor is the unit that receives signals from other

vehicle’s components through sensors, analyzes these signals according to

preinstalled algorithms, and sends feedback to control the vehicle’s
functions and behavior.
Due to advances in semiconductor technology, ever more complex DSP

algorithms and applications are now feasible, which, in the same time,
increase the complexity of the systems and products.
 As the complexity increases, the system reliability is no longer solely

defined by the hardware reliability: system reliability is increasingly

determined by both hardware and software architecture and the level of

74 design maintainability.
 The basic functions of this unit are:

- Provide control signals to power converter;

- Monitor vehicle status analyzing signals from sensors;
- Process inputs from driver (accelerator and brake pedals
signals);
- Calculate range considering battery state of charge.

 The likely failure modes identified for the DSP are:

- Device cannot initialize;

- Device cannot provide proper output;
- Device cannot analyze input signals.
75
 A few of the more common causes of DSP software bugs are due to:

 Failure of interrupts to completely restore processor state upon completion;

 Failing to properly initialize or disable circular buffering addressing modes;

 Memory leaks, the gradual consumption of available volatile memory due to

failure of a thread to release all memory when finished.

 Dependency of DSP routines on specific memory arrangements of variables;

 Conflict or excessive latency between peripheral accesses;

 Subroutine execution times dependent on input data or configuration.

76
 Table: Failure causes and PM tasks for the Digital Signal Processor
77
 3. Permanent Magnet Synchronous traction motor (PMSM)
 The electric motor has the main role of providing the traction

power to the wheels and moving the vehicle but, in the case of
pure-electric transportation, the range limitation induced
manufacturers to research in solutions able to increase the
efficiency.
 The idea of Regenerative Braking goes on this direction, and it

consists of the ability to generate electric energy during the

braking phase of the car: the motor works as a generator charging
the battery and increases the driving range of almost 20 - 25%.

78
 The main functions of the electric motor are:

 Convert electric energy to mechanical energy;

 Convert kinetic energy to electric energy.

The likely failure modes identified for this component are:

 Winding failure;

 Bearings failure;

 Rotor and shaft failure.

Each of these principal failure modes has several failure causes

that could generate the unwonted effect, and in the PM

79 worksheet the proper maintenance activities have been planned.

 Table: Failure causes and PM tasks for the PMSM
80
 Major part of maintenance tasks relate to keep the motor away from

moisture, pollution, dust and chemical, both during the storing and

the running, because these are the main root causes of failure.

Indeed an electric motor has a very few components moving inside

the housing, unlike a classic internal combustion engine, so friction

is not a big problem and the reliability is much more high.

On the other hand, the strong magnetic field generated by the rotor

permanent magnets has an ageing effect on the bearings, which

besides continue to have a long life cycle and assure duration.

81
  According to Terry Harris in the web seminar for UE system Inc.,

the failures of an electric motor can be divided into 6 main

classes:
 Bearings;

 Stator winding (i.e. overload, water);

 External (i.e. environment, voltage, load);

 Rotor bar;

 Shaft or coupling.

 In the following diagram are shown the average percentage of

occurrence for these classes.

82
83
Figure: Percentage of occurrence of each failure cause of the PMSM
electric motor
  In the following table, the main failure causes are summarized for each

constituent of the motor structure:

84
 Breakdown maintenance and overhaul jobs are handled at maintenance service provider facilities.

However, breakdown maintenance for electric traction motors is not common due to their low

failure rates, almost 4.0x10-5 (failure/hour).

4. Power converter – 3 phase Inverter

The Inverter has the role of connection between the battery and the motor, addressing

two main functions:

- Control the electric traction motor converting current at the required voltage;

- Charge the battery during regenerative braking, converting energy generated by

the motor.

The basis failure modes identified for this device are mainly three:

- Device cannot initialize;

- Abnormal output to the motor;

- Abnormal output to the battery

85
  In the following table are shown the failure causes and proper maintenance

tasks to address these causes, with suggested frequency of application.

86 Table: Failure causes and PM tasks for the Inverter device

 5. Fail-safe circuit breaker
Circuit breakers are used in a power system to break or make

current flow through power system apparatus, in order to protect an

electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit.
Its basic function is to detect a fault condition and, by interrupting

continuity, to immediately discontinue electrical flow.

Unlike a fuse, which operates once and then has to be replaced, a

circuit breaker can be reset to resume normal operation.

Reliable operation of circuit breakers is critical to the ability to

reconfigure a power system and can be assured by regular

inspection and maintenance
87
  The likely failure modes identified for this critical component are:

 Stuck switch in on position;

 Stuck switch in off position.

 The first failure has no evident effects on the vehicle, because the

current is able to flow through the circuit, but in the case of

electrical malfunction, the switch could not work.
 It is a typical example of hidden failure, impossible to detect

without a proper preventive maintenance program, and in this

particular case very dangerous for safety reasons.
 This failure mode is classified as potentially critical for the vehicle.
88
 Obviously, the second failure brings evident consequences on the

system because electricity cannot flow through the power

system, and it results in the breakdown of the vehicle, with
possible consequences on safety.
 For this second failure mode, the component is finally classified

as CRITICAL for safety concerns.

 As the majority of electrical devices, the circuit breaker is often

replaced in case of failure, but is vital to replace it before the

occurrence of the failure: this is the reason for apply a preventive
maintenance program, as shown in the following table.
89
 Table: Failure causes and PM tasks for Circuit Breaker

90
 6. Temperature sensor of 12V battery
This sensor has the role of detecting and communicating to the Battery

Control unit the thermal status of the auxiliary 12 V battery. The processor
analyzes these data and controls the flux of energy through DC/DC
converter, in order to avoid a failure of the battery.
This component is classified as POTENTIALLY CRITICAL, because its

failure is hidden, and only with the addition of another failure, as the failure
of the battery, there is a consequence at the vehicle level.
If this failure is made evident by the Vehicle Control System (DSP), then the

Temperature sensor could be classified as a Run to Failure component, and

replaced after its breakdown.
In the following table are shown the PM tasks planned for this component

91 and relative periodicity.

 Table: Failure causes and PM tasks for Circuit Breaker

92
Hybrid Transmissions
Hybrid systems are often defined as series, parallel or series-

parallel. These definitions are not clear as some vehicles can

change modes under different operating conditions.
Manufacturers also have their own terminology that can cause

some confusion. Series hybrids do not use ICE to propel the

vehicle directly.
The ICE is there to drive the generator to produce electrical power.

Generally the transmission in a series system does not provide

torque and speed management as in a conventional transmission.

93
 Series-parallel systems use a power split device. This

consists of an ICE, two electric motor/generators and a

simple planetary gear set.
These transmissions are distinctly different from
conventional types and were the subject of the practical
workshop session.
Participants disassembled and reassembled several Toyota

transmissions. The transmission has a power split device and

is actually a simple design to work on. Field reports suggest
that they are reliable units.
94
95
 Honda service precautions with the IMA specify the following:

 Disconnect the 12v battery before servicing any of the HV

system

Turn off the HV switch and wait 5 minutes to give capacitors

time to discharge. The IMA doesn’t have a service plug to

remove, so service technicians must take precautions against

other personnel inadvertently turning the switch back on.

After the 5 minute wait the system should be checked for HV.

Any voltage below 30 is considered safe.

96
 When removing and refitting the rotor from the rear of

the ICE, extreme care must be taken as there is real

potential for fingers to be caught between the rotor and
the windings.
The strength of the magnetic field requires specialized

tools to perform this task and the correct procedures

must be followed.
People with pacemakers should be kept away from the

rotor due to the strength of the magnetic field.

97
 Overview of Prius Hybrid Power Train and Control Systems
 The hybrid power train of Toyota Prius uses the series–parallel
architecture. The hybrid system components include the following:
 Hybrid transaxle, consisting of motor/generator 1 (MG1), motor/ generator

2 (MG2), and a planetary gear unit (refer to Figure A.3 for more details)
 1NZ-FXE engine

 Inverter assembly containing an inverter, a booster converter, a DC–DC

converter, and an AC inverter

 Hybrid vehicle electronic control unit (HV ECU), which gathers

information from the sensors and sends calculated results to the engine
control module (ECM), inverter assembly, battery ECU, and skid control
ECU to control the hybrid system.
98
 Shift position sensor

 Accelerator pedal position sensor, which converts accelerator angle into an

electrical signal
 Skid control ECU that controls regenerative braking

 ECM

 High-voltage (HV) battery

 Battery ECU, which monitors the charging condition of the HV battery and

controls cooling fan operation

 Service plug, which shuts off the system

 The system main relay (SMR) that connects and disconnects the HV power

circuit

99 Auxiliary battery, which stores 12 V DC for the vehicle’s control systems
100
 Z END
THANK U

101