Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties of Metals

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• When a metal is exposed to mechanical forces, what
parameters are used to express force magnitude and
degree of deformation?
• What is the distinction between elastic and plastic
deformations?
• How are the following mechanical characteristics of
metals measured?
(a) Stiffness
(b) Strength
(c) Ductility
(d) Hardness
• What parameters are used to quantify these properties?
Chapter 6 - 1
 Common States of Stress
• Simple tension:
cable

F F = force

Ao = cross-sectional
Ski lift (photo courtesy
area of cable (with no load) P.M. Anderson)

F
Tensile stress = σ σ=
A0

Chapter 6 - 2
 Common States of Stress (cont.)
• Torsion (a form of shear):
drive shaft

M = moment
Ac

Ski lift (photo courtesy

M F P.M. Anderson)
2R As

AC = cross-sectional F M
τ= =
area of drive shaft As AcR
(with no load)

Chapter 6 - 3
 OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (i)
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: structure members

Balanced Rock, Arches σ= are under compression
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (F < 0 and σ < 0).

Chapter 6 - 4
OTHER COMMON STRESS STATES (ii)
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
σθ > 0

σz > 0 σh < 0

Chapter 6 - 5
 Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test • Typical tensile
machine specimen

extensometer specimen

Fig. 6.2, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Fig. 6.3, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

(Taken from H.W. Hayden, W.G. Moffatt, and J. Wulff, The Structure and Properties of Materials,
Vol. III, Mechanical Behavior, p. 2, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 1965.)
Chapter 6 - 6
 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, σ: • Shear stress, τ:
F

Area, Ao
F
Area, Ao

F
F F
τ=
F Ao
σ=
Ao Units for stress:
original cross-sectional MPa = 106 Pa = 106 N/m2 or lbf /in2
area before loading

Chapter 6 - 7
 Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain (εz): • Lateral strain (εx):
Δl/2
- Δd
εz= Δl εx =
lo do lo d0

Δd/2
• Shear strain (γ):
θ
x γ = Δx/y = tan θ

y Both tensile and shear strain

are dimensionless

Chapter 6 - 8
 Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
• Simple tension:

Δl= Fl o
EA o

Δd = - ν Fd o
EA o Ao

• Deflection is dependent on
material, geometric, and
loading parameters.
• Materials with large elastic
moduli deform less

Chapter 6 - 9
 Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
• Simple torsion
(cont.)
M = moment
32 Mlo
α= 4 α = angle of twist
πdo G

lo

do

Chapter 6 - 10
 Linear Elastic Properties
• Elastic deformation is nonpermanent and reversible!
– generally valid at small deformations
– linear stress strain curve
• Modulus of Elasticity, E: σ
(also known as Young's modulus)
tension
• Hooke's Law: E
σ=Eε
ε
Linear-
Units: compression elastic
E: [GPa] or [psi]
1 GPa = 109 Pa

Chapter 6 - 11
 Elastic Modulus – Comparison of
Material Types
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
1000 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
CFRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
100 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda AFRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin GFRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
Concrete Composite data based on
20 GFRE* reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
CFRE*
GFRE( fibers)*
of aligned
Graphite
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 CFRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDPE
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTFE
0.4

0.2 LDPE
Chapter 6 - 12
 Elastic Deformation
Atomic configurations—before, during, after load (force) application

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
Δl
= metal atom
F
Force, F Linear-
elastic
Elastic deformation is Non-Linear-
nonpermanent and reversible! elastic
Δl
Chapter 6 - 13
 Influence of Bonding Forces
• Elastic modulus depends on interatomic bonding
forces
• Modulus proportional to slope of interatomic force-
ædF ö
interatomic separation curve ç ÷
è dr ør
o

Stongly bonded –
larger E
Interatomic

Interatomic
Force F

Separation r

Weakly bonded – Fig. 6.7, Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

smaller E

Chapter 6 - 14
 Poisson's ratio
• Poisson's ratio, ν:
εz
compression

εz
ν= -
εx εx

metals: ν ~ 0.33 -ν
ceramics: ν ~ 0.25
tension
polymers: ν ~ 0.40

Units: For most metals, ceramics and

ν: dimensionless polymers:
0.15 < ν ≤ 0.50

Chapter 6 - 15
 Other Elastic Properties
M = moment
• Elastic Shear τ
modulus, G: simple
G torsion
τ=Gγ test

0 γ
M
hydrostatic
• Elastic Bulk
P P = pressure
modulus, K:
ΔV K P P
P = -K
Vo -ΔV
Pressure test:
Init. vol. = Vo
0 Vo Vol. chg. = ΔV
• Elastic constant relationships for isotropic materials:
E E
G= K=
2(1 + ν) 3(1 - 2ν)
Chapter 6 - 16
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Apply load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch atoms
& atoms remain
displaced displaced

Δlelastic + Δlplastic Δlplastic

= metal atom
F
F
Plastic deformation is permanent linear linear
and nonrecoverable. elastic elastic
Δl
Δlplastic
Chapter 6 - 17
 Plastic Deformation
• Plastic Deformation is permanent and nonrecoverable
• Stress-strain plot for simple tension test:
Stressed into
Plastic Region,
stress, σ Elastic + Plastic

Elastic
Deformation
Stress Removed,
Plastic Deformation
Remains

εp strain, ε

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),

Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Chapter 6 - 18
 Yield Strength
• Transition from elastic to plastic deformation is gradual
• Yield strength = stress at which noticeable plastic deformation

has occurred when εp = 0.002

σ (stress)
σy = yield strength
σy

Note: for 5 cm sample

ε = 0.002 = Δz/z
Δz = 0.01 cm

ε (strain)
εp = 0.002 Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),
Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
Chapter 6 - 19
 Yield Strength – Comparison of
Material Types
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, σy (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

700

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600 Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a Room temperature
Steel (1020) cd
300 values

Hard to measure,
Hard to measure ,

Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr ¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure) Based on data in Table B.4,
Cu (71500) hr
Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
100 a = annealed
dry hr = hot rolled
70 PC
60 Nylon 6,6
ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid cw = cold worked
PP qt = quenched & tempered
30 HDPE
20

LDPE
Tin (pure)
10 Chapter 6 - 20
VMSE: Virtual Tensile Testing

Chapter 6 - 21
 Tensile Strength
• Tensile strength (TS) = maximum stress on engineering
stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,

TS Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

Fracture
y
strength
engineering
stress

Neck – acts
as stress
Typical response of a metal concentrator

strain
engineering strain
• Metals: Maximum on stress-strain curve appears at the onset

of noticeable necking Chapter 6 - 22

 Tensile Strength: Comparison of
Material Types
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

AFRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)
Cu (71500) cw Si nitride
Cu (71500)
Steel (1020)
hr
Al oxide Room temperature
300 Al (6061) ag
200
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
values
Al (6061) a Based on data in Table B4,
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET a = annealed
40 Concrete PVC GFRE( fiber)
PP CFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
30
HDPE
AFRE( fiber) ag = aged
20 Graphite cd = cold drawn
LDPE
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber) composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 Chapter 6 - 23
 Ductility
• Ductility = amount of plastic deformation at failure:
• Specification of ductility
-- Percent elongation:

-- Percent reduction in area:

low ductility

tensile Ao
stress, σ lo Af lf
high ductility

Adapted from Fig. 6.13,

Callister & Rethwisch 10e.

tensile strain, ε
Chapter 6 - 24
 Resilience
• Resilience—ability of a material to absorb energy
during elastic deformation
• Energy recovered when load released
• Resilience specified by modulus of resilience, Ur

Ur = Area under stress-strain curve

ey
to yielding = ò s de
0

If assume a linear stress-strain

curve this simplifies to

1 ε
εy Ur ≅ σ y y
2
Fig. 6.15, Callister & Rethwisch 10e. Chapter 6 - 25
 Toughness
• Toughness of a material is expressed in several contexts
• For this chapter, toughness = amount of energy absorbed
before fracture
• Approximate by area under the stress-strain curve—units
of energy per unit volume
small toughness (ceramics)
tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, σ
very small toughness
(unreinforced polymers)

tensile strain, ε
Brittle fracture: small toughness
Ductile fracture: large toughness
Chapter 6 - 26
 True Stress & Strain
• True stress s T =F Ai where Ai = instantaneous
cross-sectional
• True strain (
eT =ln ℓi ℓo ) area

Conversion Equations:
valid only to the onset
of necking

s T =s ( 1+ e)
eT =ln ( 1+ e)

Adapted from Fig. 6.16,

Callister & Rethwisch 10e.
Chapter 6 - 27
 True Stress-True Strain Relationship
• Most alloys, between point of yielding and onset of necking
n
( )
σ T = K εT
 n and K values depend on alloy and treatment
 n = strain-hardening exponent
 n < 1.0
• σT vs. εT -- influence of n.
σT
larger n

small n

εT Chapter 6 - 28
 Elastic Strain Recovery
yield strength for 2nd
D
deformation = σyi
initial yield strength = σyo
2. Unload

Stress

1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain

Fig. 6.17, Callister & Elastic strain

Rethwisch 10e. recovery
Chapter 6 - 29
 Hardness
• Measure of resistance to surface plastic deformation—
dent or scratch.
• Large hardness means:
-- high resistance to deformation from compressive loads.
-- better wear properties.
apply known force measure size
one indenter type- of indent after
10 mm sphere
removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness

Chapter 6 - 30
 Measurement of Hardness
Rockwell Hardness
• Several scales—combination of load magnitude, indenter size

• Examples:
– Rockwell A Scale – 60 kg load/diamond indenter
– Superficial Rockwell 15T Scale – 15 kg load/ 1/16 in. indenter
• Rockwell hardness designation: (hardness reading) HR
• Examples: 57 HRA; 63 HR15T
• Hardness range for each scale: 0130 HR;
useful range: 20100 HR
Chapter 6 - 31
 Measurement of Hardness (cont.)
Brinell Hardness
• Single scale
• Brinell hardness designation: (hardness
reading) HB

– P = load (kg)
– 500 kg  P  3000 kg (500 kg increments)
• Relationships—Brinell hardness & tensile strength
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB
Chapter 6 - 32
 Variability of Material Properties
• Measured material properties—always scatter in
values for same material
• Statistical treatments
• Typical value—take average value, for some
parameter x:
n

S xi
n = number of measurements x= i=1

n
xi = specific measured value
• Degree of scatter—use standard deviation, s
1
én 2ù2

s =ê
(
êi S= 1 x i - x ) ú
ú
ê n-1 ú
ë û
Chapter 6 - 33
 Design/Safety Factors
• Because of design uncertainties allowances must
be made to protect against unanticipated failure
• For structural applications, to protect against possibility
of failure—use working stress, σw, and a
factor of safety, N
yield strength
sy
sw =
N
Depending on application,
N is between 1.2 and 4

Chapter 6 - 34
 Design/Safety Factors (cont.)
Example Problem: A cylindrical rod, to be constructed from
a steel that has a yield strength of 310 MPa, is to withstand
a load of 220,000 N without yielding. Assuming a value of 4
for N, specify a suitable bar diameter.

sy d
sw =
N Steel rod:
σy = 310 MPa
220,000 N
2 4
æd ö
pç ÷
è2 ø F = 220,000 N

Solving for the rod diameter d yields

d = 0.060 m = 60 mm
Chapter 6 - 35
 Summary
• Applied mechanical force—normalized to stress

• Degree of deformation—normalized to strain

• Elastic deformation:
non-permanent; occurs at low levels of stress
stress-strain behavior is linear

• Plastic deformation
permanent; occurs at higher levels of stress
stress-strain behavior is nonlinear

• Stiffness—a material's resistance to elastic deformation

elastic (or Young's) modulus

Chapter 6 - 36
 Summary (cont.)

• Strength—a material's resistance to plastic deformation

yield and tensile strengths

• Ductility—amount of plastic deformation at failure

percents elongation, reduction in area

• Hardness—resistance to localized surface deformation

& compressive stresses
Rockwell, Brinell hardnesses

Chapter 6 - 37
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 6 - 38