SITE INVESTIGATION

geophysic test

11/01/22
1
 Geophysics

1. Resistivity
2. Seismic Refraction
3. Seismic Reflection
4. Gravity
5. elektromagnetic

11/01/22
2
 Geophysical exploration
The technique of determining underground
materials by:
measuring some physical property of the
material and,
through correlations, using the obtained
values for identification.
Determination over a sizeable distance
(compare: boring/test pit: “point” checking).
The measurements can be rapidly obtained.

11/01/22
3
 The methods have proven to be
reliable but,
there are limitations as to the data can
be obtained,
a number of borings are required to
obtained test samples to make
accurate determinations of soil
properties,
it is the boring that can provide the
detail required.
Geophysical and boring data are
complementary one to another.

11/01/22
4
 1. Resistivity survey

The electrical resistivity,r, of any conducting material

having a length L and area of cross section A can be
defined as: RA
 [ohm-cm or ohm-m]
L

where R = electrical resistance

11/01/22
5
 Resistivity

Resisitivity measurements are made by injecting

a DC current into the ground through two
electrodes and measuring the resulting voltage
at the surface at two other electrodes.

The depth of measurement is related to

electrode spacing.

Resisitivity measures bulk electrical resistivity

which is a function of the soil and rock matrix,
percentage of saturation and type of pore fluids.

11/01/22
6
 Resistivity

Uses:

 Resistivity measurements are primary used for

soundings to determine depth and thickness of geologic
strata

 Also can be applied to profiling measurements for

locating anomalous geologic conditions, detecting and
mapping contaminant plumes, locating buried wastes
and mineral exploration

 Can be used for azimuthal measurements to determine

fracture orientation

11/01/22
7
 Resistivity Sounding

11/01/22
8
 Resistivity Sounding

11/01/22
9
 Field Work - Procedure

Schematic illustration
basic concept of
electric resistivity
measurement.

Electrode Spacing = Depth Section

11/01/22
10
 Methodology

Site Visit – to collect information and

detail about site conditions.
Field Work – held technical work on site.
Propose devices - ABEM Terrameter SAS
4000. The specific configuration - using the
Wenner Configuration through electric
resistivity method.
Data Collection – converting data and
interpret using RES2DINV software.

11/01/22
11
 Methodology

Field Work - Equipments

a. ABEM Terrameter SAS 4000.

d
b. Gelled lead-acid battery or car battery.
c. ABEM ES 464 / ES 10-64 Electrode
Selector, include connecting cable to
terrameter. f
d. 4 Lund spread cable (100 m each). b
e. Cable joints.
f. Cable jumpers. g a
g. Stainless steel electrode.
h. Tool and spare kit such hammer, c e
measuring tape and others in need.

11/01/22
12
 Methodology
Field Work - Equipments

ABEM Terrameter SAS 4000

11/01/22
13
 Methodology
Field Work - Procedure

C1 P1 P2 C2
C1 and C2 = Current electrode
a a a
P1 and P2 = Potential electrode

a = Electrode spacing

Wenner array configuration

11/01/22
14
 Methodology
Field Work - Procedure

Cable

Switching
system

Cable spread arrangement

11/01/22
15
 Methodology
Field Work - Procedure

Electric cable spread

On site scene where the electric cable was

spooled out in a straight line
11/01/22
16
 Methodology
Field Work - Procedure

Connection between steel electrode to cable.

(a) Cable jumpers to last point of first cable.
(b) Cable jumpers to first point of second cable.
11/01/22
17
 Methodology
Field Work - Procedure

Multi-core cable joint

– used to link together the
inner and outer electric cable.

11/01/22
18
 Methodology
Data collection – RES2DINV

2-Dimentional Resistivity Imaging Interpretation

software are widely used to map areas of
moderately complex geology where conventional
resistivity sounding and profiling techniques are
inadequate. The results plotted in form of
pseudosection and inverse model.

11/01/22
19
Cont’d

Advantages:

 Good vertical resolution (sounding)

 May also be used for profiling

 Measurements can be easily made to depths of

few hundred feet or more

 Various electrode configurations are available

for different applications

11/01/22
20
Cont’d

Disadvantages:

 Requires intrusive contact with the ground

 Station measurements only

 Electrode array can be quite long, with outermost electrode

spacing from 9 to 18 times the depth of interest

 Susceptible to interference from nearby metal fences,

buried pipes, cables, etc

 Generally, cannot be used over asphalt or concrete

 Effectiveness decreases at very low resisitivity values (use

electromagnetic measurements)
11/01/22
21
 Table 7.3 List of resistivity value for several rocks and soils. (Keller and chknecht, 1966,
Daniels and Alberty, 1966)

Material Resistivity Conductivity  m 1

Igneus& Metamorf  m  1
Granite 5x103 –106 10-6-2x10-4
Basalt 103-106 10-6-10-3
Slate 6x102-4x107 2.5x10-8-1.7x10-3
Marble 102-2.5x108 4x10-9-10-2
Quarzite 102-2x108 5x10-9-10-2

Sedimentary Rock
Sandstone 8-4x103 2.5x10-4-0.125
Shale 20-2x103 5x10-4-0.05
Limestone 50-4x102 2.5x10-3-0.02
1-100 0.01-1
Soil and Water
Clay
Alluvium 10-800 1.25x10-3-0.1
Groundwater (Clean) 10-100 0.01-0.1
Marine water 0.15 6.7
11/01/22
22
 Application of resistivity survey to
determine weathering profiles

11/01/22
23
 Application of resistivity survey to
determine weathering profiles

11/01/22
24
 Application of resistivity survey to determine sinkholes or cavity of limestone

11/01/22
25
 Application of resistivity survey to
determine water boundaries

11/01/22
26
 Study Area
Kg.Tanjung Laboh; Johor

Small Airport

Location map

Actual location

11/01/22
27
 Study Area

Non Pavement road

House
Pavement road
Tree
Aircraft Storehouse
Palm tree
cannel
Mangroove Water pond

Schematic diagram of the actual field work location at Kg.

Tanjong Laboh

11/01/22
28
 Geology Map Study Area

Geological map surrounding the study area (after GSM, 1985)

11/01/22
29
 Geology Of Tanjung Laboh Batu Pahat; Johor

o The soil in the study area consists of alluvium

deposits, which were mainly sand and gravel marine
at the Quaternary Age.
o Present of sand lithology - indicate good potential of
ground water extracted from aquifer. Even there are
some local residences that using ground water as
domestic water supply.
o Other evidence shows that Tanjung Laboh is mainly
sand - sand mining activities at surrounding area.
Near the coastal, indicated the groundwater well.
o The north part of study area are granite rock (Bukit
Soga and Bukit Banang) and sandstone.

11/01/22
30
 well located nearby the coastal area (10m).
500m from the study area.

11/01/22
31
 RESULT ANALYSIS

Pseudosection and Inverse Model Results

11/01/22
32
 RESULT ANALYSIS

± 500 m To coastal area

To land
Compacted layer

Y1 Y1
Y2Y2 Fresh water
Water table zone ??
Brackish
Saline intrusion Y3 zone
Y3

Inverse Model Resistivity Section

11/01/22
33
 Result Analysis

From (Keller and Frishcknecht 1996 and Daniels and

Alberty 1996):
Saline water zone - <5 Ohm.m
Brackish zone - 5 - 10 Ohm.m
Fresh water zone -10 - 100 Ohm.m
Clay - 1 - 100 Ohm.m

11/01/22
34
 Results Based on Inverse Model

Water Table and Brackish

Water:
The water table generally
ranged from 8m to 18m
(average 12m) from the
ground surface, below which
was located the brackish water
down at the ordinates of depth
and distance measured from
the beginning of the cable of
(25m, 90m) and (30m, 150m)
and (55m, 200m), which were
derived from the
measurements of resistivity
(Ohm-m) compared to the
resistivity table.

11/01/22
35
 Results Based on Inverse Model

Salinity:
The salinity appeared
to have intruded
inland as indicated by
the concave curve
Y1-Y2-Y3 whose
ordinates, like above,
are respectively:
(25m, 90m), (30m,
150m), and (55m,
200m).

11/01/22
36
 Results Based on Inverse Model

Compacted top soil

layer:
The topmost soil layer
showed 2m deep reddish
brown soil with gravel
having resistivity between
2000 and 8000 Ohm-m.
The high resistivity
indicates that the soil had
previously been
compacted for, as history
tells us, an airport runway
during the Japanese
Occupation.

11/01/22
37
 Results Based on Inverse Model

Fresh water:
No fresh water zone was
detected by the survey line
which was limited in capability
only up to 50m depth and the
survey distance of 1 Km from
the shore. The freshwater
zone might be detected had
the survey capability been
extended in depth and
distance. About 2 Km inland,
some activities of aquaculture
ponds were observed using
tube wells and dug-well water
supply for individual domestic
use.

11/01/22
38
 Results Based on Inverse Model

Aquifer:
No aquifer thickness
could be estimated within
the limits of the study
(60m depth and distance
1 Km), indicating that an
aquifer might be present
to depths exceeding 60m
and distance exceeding 1
Km from the shore due to
the fact that the
impermeable layer
(bedrock or clay layer)
was not detectable.

11/01/22
39
 2. Seismic Refraction
Seismic refraction measurements are made by measuring the travel time of
a refracted seismic wave as it travels from the surface through one layer to
another and is refracted back to the surface where it is picked up by
geophones.

Shock or impact is made at a point, seismic waves through the surrounding

soil & rock.

The wave speed relating to the density and bonding characteristics of the
material.

The velocity is determined.

The magnitude of the velocity is than utilized to identified the material.

The travel time of a seismic wave is a function of soil and rock density and
hardness.

11/01/22
40
 Seismic refraction wave movement into
subsurface

11/01/22
41
 Seismic Refraction Concept

Source: Redpath, 1973

11/01/22
42
 Figure 3: Position of geophones and impact points

11/01/22
43
 Borehole

Figure 2: Schematic of a typical seismic refraction survey (Redpath, 1973)

11/01/22
44
 Seismic refraction

Shock or impact is made at a

point  seismic waves
through the surrounding soil
& rock.
Ground
surface The wave speed relating to
hammer the density and bonding
geophone
characteristics of the
material.
The velocity is determined.
Soil (lower velocity)
The magnitude of the
velocity is than utilized to
identified the material.
Rock or other hard material
(higher velocity)

11/01/22
45
 Field survey:
Obtaining a series of geophone reading at different distance
along a straight line directed from the impact point;
for geophone spacing close to the strike plate  the
vibration picked up by geophone will be from those direct
through the upper layer,
the time to reach the geophone is proportional to the
distance from the point of impact.
When the surficial layer is underlain by harder layer, the
waves also progress downward and enter the harder layer.
The velocity will be greater in the harder material.
Waves traveling through the upper portion of the harder
layer transfer energy back into the upper layer  refracted
wave.
For large strike-geophone distances, the refracted wave will
reach the geophone more quickly than directed wave, even
though the path of travel is longer.

11/01/22
46
 Velocity, v, of P waves in a medium

 E = modulus of elasticity of
E (1   )
v the medium
 (1  2 )(1   )   unit wt of the medium
 g = acceleration due to
g gravity
 m = Poisson’s ratio

11/01/22
47
 Procedure………

x
A v1 (x1) B (x2) C (x3) D

Time of first arrival

Velocity v1
v1 v1 v1v1 d
v2 Layer I T12

Velocity v2 c
Layer II b
Ti1
v3
Velocity v3 Layer III a xc Distance, x

11/01/22
48
 Procedure ………

1. Obtained the time of 4. Determine the thickness

first arrival, t1, t2, t3, …., of the top layer as
at various distance, x1, 1 v1  v2
x2, x3, …, from the Z1  xc
impact pt. 2 v2  v1
2. Plot t vs x 5. Determine the thickness
3. Determine the slope of of the 2nd layer Z2
ab, bc, cd, …;
slope ab = 1/v1 1 v32  v12  v3v2
Z 2  T12  2 Z1 
slope bc = 1/v2 2 v3v1  v32  v22
 
slope cd = 1/v3
vi are wave velocity of
layer I, II and III.

11/01/22
49
P-wave velocity in various soils & rock

Type of soil/rock P-wave velocity m/sec

Soil:
Sand, dry silt, fine grained top soil 200 – 1 000
Alluvium 500 – 2 000
Compacted clays, clayey gravel, 1 000 – 2 500
dense clayey sand
Loess 250 - 750
Rock:
Slate and shale 2 500 – 5 000
Sandstone 1 500 – 5 000
Granite 4 000 – 6 000
Sound limestone 5 000 – 10 000

11/01/22
50
Example: The result of are fraction survey are given in
the following table. Determine P-wave velocities and
thickness of the material encountered (BM Das pp 138)
Distance from the Time of first arrival
point of impact (m) (sec x 103)
2.5 11.2
5 23.3
7.5 33.5
10 42.4
15 50.9
20 57.2
25 64.4
30 68.6
35 71.1
40 75.5

11/01/22
51
 80
x 1 0-3 sec b c
65

time of first arrival (10E3) s

70 Ti2 = 3.5
14.75
60
13.5
50
a 11
40
30
20 23
xc = 10.5 m
10
5.25
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
distance, x (m)

Slope Oa = 1/v1 = t/d = (23 x 10-3)/5.25  v1 = 228 m/sec

Slope ab = 1/v2 = t/d = (13.5 x 10-3)/11  v2 = 814.8 m/sec
Slope bc = 1/v3 = t/d = (3.5 x 10-3)/14.75  v1 = 4214 m/sec

11/01/22
52
 Thickness of layers:
xc = 10.5 m  Z1  1 v2  v1 xc
2 v2  v1
Thus:
1 814.8  228
Z1  10.5  3.94 m
2 814.8  228

2nd layer: 1 v32  v12  v3v2

Z 2  T12  2 Z1 
2 v3v1  v32  v22
 

1 3 42142  2282  4214  814.8

Z 2  65 10  2  3.94   12.66 m
2  4214  228  4214  814.4
2 2

 The rock layer lies at depth of Z1 + Z2 = 16.60 m

measured from the ground surface

11/01/22
53
Cont’d

Uses:

 Primary application for seismic refraction is for determination of

depth and thickness of geologic strata, structure and anomalous
conditions

 Depth can be calculated under each geophone to produce a

detailed two-dimensional top of rock profile

 Detail is inversely proportional to geophone spacing

 If compressional P-wave and shear S-wave velocities are

measured, in situ elastic moduli of soil and rock can be
determined

 Can be used for azimuthal measurements to determine fracture

orientation

 Also has application for evaluation of man-made structures

11/01/22
54
Cont’d

Advantages:

 Typical measurements are less than 100 feet but can

easily made to greater depths, if necessary

 Can resolve up to 3 to 4 layers

 Can provide depth under each geophone

 Both P and S waves can be determined

 The source of seismic energy can be as simple as 10

pound sledge hammer

11/01/22
55
Cont’d

Disadvantages:

 The survey line length (source to farthest geophone) may be 4 to

5 times the desired depth of investigation

 Requires intrusive contact with the ground

 Station measurement only

 Sensitive to acoustic noise and vibrations

 Seismic velocity of layers must increase with depth

 Will not detect thin layers or layers with inverted velocities

 Deeper measurements will require explosives as an energy

source
11/01/22
56
 Determination of subsurface profile using seismic refraction method

11/01/22
57
 Determination of subsurface profile
using seismic refraction method

11/01/22
58
 Determination of subsurface profile
using seismic refraction method

11/01/22
59
 Determination of subsurface profile using seismic refraction method

11/01/22
60
 Determination of subsurface profile
using seismic refraction method

11/01/22
61
 Determination of subsurface profile and geological structure
using seismic refraction method

11/01/22
62
 Rotary Wash Boring Method

Drilling process was carried out at BH 1 Installed protective casing at BH 1

point

11/01/22
63
 A Sample Seismogram

11/01/22
64
 Table 1: Typical velocities of earth materials

Material Velocity (m/s)

Weathered surface material 305-610
Gravel, rubble or sand (dry) 468-915
Sand (wet) 610-1830
Clay 915-2750
Water (depending on temperature and 1430-1680
salt content)
Sea water 1460-1530
Sandstone 1830-3970
Shale 2750-4270
Chalk 1830-3970
Limestone 2140-6100
Salt 4270-5190
Granite 4580-5800
Metamorphic rocks 3050-7020

Source: Goodman, 1993

11/01/22
65
 Table 2: Typical velocities of earth materials by geologic age

Age Type of rocks Velocity (m/s)

Quaternary Sediments (various degrees of 305-2290
consolidation
Tertiary Consolidated sediment 1530-4270
Mesozoic Consolidated sediment 1830-5950
Paleozoic Consolidated sediment 1980-5950
Archeozoic Various 3810-7020

Source: Goodman, 1993

11/01/22
66
11/01/22
67
 Rotary Wash Boring
Distance (m)
BH1 20 BH2
0
Ground Water Table

10

Clay
15
Depth (m)

20

25
Sand
Silt
30
Clay

35

Figure 4: Subsurface Profiles from Boreholes

11/01/22
68
 Seismic Refraction
Distance(m)
BH1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 BH2
0
Loose Soil
Ground Water Table

10

Original Soil
Residual Soil
20
Depth(m)

30

40
Rock

50

Figure 5: Subsurface profile derived from seismic refraction

11/01/22
69
 Merged Subsurface

Distance(m)
BH1 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 BH2
0
Ground Water Table

10

Very Soft to Very Stiff Clay

20
Pinnacle
Depth(m)

30
Lensa Sand
Hard Clay
Cliff
Cavity
40

Limestone

50

11/01/22
70
 3. Seismic Reflection
The seismic reflection technique measures
the travel time of seismic waves from the
ground surface downward to a geologic
contact where part of the seismic energy is
reflected back to geophones at the surface
while the rest of the energy continues to the
next interface.

The travel time of the seismic wave is a

function of soil and rock density and
hardness.

11/01/22
71
 Schematic diagram of seismic reflection

11/01/22
72
Cont’d

Uses:

 Primary application is for determination of

depth and thickness of geologic strata,
structural and anomalous conditions.

11/01/22
73
Cont’d

Advantages:

 Provides a high resolution cross section (as compared to

refraction) of soil/rock along profile line

 The high resolution method uses frequencies of up to a few 100

Hz

 Measurements can be made from about 50 feet to a few 1,000

feet deep

 Measurements to these depths can often be made without

explosives, often using a 10 pound sledge hammer as a seismic
source

 The survey line length (source to farthest geophone) is usually 1

to 2 times the desired depth of investigation (much less than that
required for refraction measurements)

 Both P and S waves can be measured.

11/01/22
74
Cont’d

Disadvantages:

 Requires intrusive contact with the ground

 Station measurement only

 Sensitive to acoustic noise and vibration

 Can require extensive processing

11/01/22
75
 4. Gravity

Gravity measurements detect changes in

the earth's gravitational field caused by
local changes in the density of the soil and
rock or engineered structures.

11/01/22
76
 Sketch of gravity survey over cavity

11/01/22
77
 Gravity survey

11/01/22
78
Cont’d

Uses:

Standard gravity measurements are primarily

applied to characterizing geologic structure
using widely spaced stations (100's to 1,000's of
feet apart).

Microgravity measurements can be used to

characterize detailed localized geologic
conditions (such as bedrock channels, caves,
and abandoned tunnels and mines) usually
within the upper few 100 feet.

Microgravity uses closely spaced stations (a few

feet to about 50 feet) and a micro gravimeter
(capable of reading to a few microgals). 79
11/01/22
Cont’d

Advantages:

Provides a means to characterize conditions in

geologic and cultural environments, where other
geophysical methods may fail

Does not require intrusive ground contact

Data can be interpreted to provide estimates of

depth size and the nature of the anomaly

Can be used inside buildings and structures

11/01/22
80
Cont’d

Disadvantages:

Station measurements only

Instruments carried by hand only

Requires base station for drift corrections

Requires accurate elevation measurements

The process of making microgravity measurements is a

relatively slow and tedious in the field and requires
extensive processing and corrections

Susceptible to cultural and natural vibrations

11/01/22
81
11/01/22
82