RM b62011 (Editted)

Research Methods
Instructor: Dr Arbab I. B.
Faris
Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 1

Course Outlines
 The overall aim of this course is to introduce students to the
process and basic tools and techniques of conducting
research in business-related areas. This is intended as a
preparation for the more complex issues encountered in the
conducting real research.
 Students will be able to design basic research programmes
with realistic objectives, appropriate methodologies and
within a manageable timescale whilst understanding the
limitations of a chosen research approach and method of
primary data capture. They will also be able to apply basic
techniques of quantitative and qualitative data analysis. They
will also know how to critically evaluate their own and other
peoples' research.

Topics covered include:
 Basic concepts and definitions of relevance
 Writing a research proposal
 Formulation of research problem
 Questionnaire design
 Sampling: probability and non-probability methods
 Data collection through measurement and/or
observation
 Data management.
 Data analysis
 Dissemination of research findings

Assessment Scheme
 This course is assessed by a written
mid- and end- of term examinations
which count for 100 per cent of the
marks.

Texts:
 Ranjit Kumar (2005). Research
Methodology. A step by step guide for
beginners.2nd Edition. Sage Publications.
London- New Delhi.
 Mamoun M A Homeida et al (2008).Roadmap to
Research Methods for Health Professionals.UMST
Printing Press, Khartoum, Sudan.
 Donald R. Cooper and Pamela S. Schindler
(2001). Business Research Methods.7th
Edition. McGraw-Hill.

Basic Concepts and
Definitions
 Definition of Research
Research is defined as scientific and
systematic investigation to find out or
revise facts or add to knowledge about
a specific topic, test models and develop
theories about a natural aspect.

Basic Concepts and
Definitions

research is simply
In its most general sense
a search for knowledge or truth.
 The search process itself involves
collecting information about a
subject from a variety of sources including
books, journals and the Internet or by
carrying out surveys or experiments or talking
to people and analysis of this information.
Objectives of Research
 Research generally attempts to find answers to
questions through the application of scientific procedures. The main
aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has
not been discovered as yet to gain familiarity with a phenomenon or
to achieve new insights into it. More specifically research aims at:
1. portraying accurately the characteristics of a particular individual
objects, a situation or a group.
2. determining the frequency with which something occurs or with
which it is associated with something else.
3. presenting a hypothesis about causal relationship between
variables

What is Research
Methodology?
 Research Methodology is
defined as a highly intellectual human
activity used in the investigation of
nature and matter and deals specifically
with the manner in which data is
collected, analyzed and interpreted.

Types of Research Methods
 Four types of research methods:
1. Qualitative,
2. Quantitative,
3. Mixed (qualitative and quantitative) ,and
4. Critical and action oriented.

What Constitutes a Research
Topic?
 A Research Topic is an unanswered
question, an unsolved question, a
Concern, a Query, or a Statement of
inquiry.

How to Choose a Research
Topic?
 A Topic is chosen for research either

because of Personal interest, Social
problem, Testing theory, or Program
evaluation.

Types of Research:
1. Descriptive research:
It describes the state of affairs as it exists at present.
2. Analytical research:
It analyses facts or information already available to make a critical
evaluation of the material.
3. Applied research:
It aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a
society.
4. Quantitative research
It is based on the measurement of quantity.

Types of research:
5. Qualitative research:
It aims at discovering the underlying motives of human behavior.
6. Empirical research:
It relies on experience or observation alone.
7. One-time research:
It is confined to a single time period
8. Longitudinal research:
The research is carried out over several time periods

Research Proposals
 Having decided on the research topic and
defined a clear research question or set of
questions, together with appropriate
methods of seeking answers, you now
need to convey your plan of research
clearly in a research proposal.
 This precedes the design and
implementation of a research.

Research Proposals

A research proposal is a formal plan
encompassingthe purpose and the
methodology of the study. It briefly contains
the following elements:
1. An introduction:
This is a brief overview of the related
conceptual issues and/or historical
developments of some aspects of
relevance to the research topic.

Research Proposals (contd)
2. A precise statement of research problem
or question.
3. Reasons for undertaking the research
(significance).
4. Statement of research Objectives.
5. Specification of Parameters (indicators)
of the study and/or hypotheses to be tested.

6. Specification of elements and Target population (or
universe).
7. Specification of main study variables; i.e. characteristics
of elements of interest, and their types.
8. Specification of the appropriate data collection mode.
Generally there are three modes:
i. Experimentation,
ii. Surveying, and
iii. Continuous registration system.

9. Specification of appropriate Sample or Experimental
Design.
Consequently the appropriate sample size and its
allocation should be specified.
10. Specification of data collection method.
11. Data Management/Processing ,tabulation, and
analysis plans.
12. Time schedule.
13. Budgets.
14. References cited.

Remark:
To be able to formulate the research
problem, prepare a research proposal,
and conduct a research scientifically ,
literature of relevance should be
thoroughly and critically reviewed.

What is Literature Review?
A Literature review is :
1. a Systematic review of available resources,
2. Theoretical and conceptual concepts
3. Identification of independent and dependent variables
4. Measurement and operational definitions
5. Selection of appropriate research technique
6. Sampling strategy, Statistical technique
7. Findings and conclusions of similar already executed studies of relevance.
Usually, Sources of Information for Literature Review are
Books, Journals, Internet, Data bases, Archives, Interviews, Observations, Reports, and Records.

Why Developing a Research Proposal?

Research proposals serve the following purposes:
1. They convince others that your research is worth
undertaking.
2. They enable you to demonstrate expertise and
competency in your particular area of study.
3. They may serve as a contract between the
researcher and his/her funders.
4. They serve as a planning tool for the researcher.

Main Phases of
Research
1. Formulation of Research Problem:
This includes:
 Checking the existence of a problem that
needs to, and can, be studied.
A Research problem/topic is an
unanswered question, an unsolved question, a
Concern, a Query, or a Statement of inquiry.
A problem/topic is chosen for research either
because of personal interest, social problem,
testing theory, or program evaluation.
Main Phases of Research
(contd)
 Formulating and delimiting that problem.
 Is it relevant and executable?
 Checking the adequacy of resources (namely; time,

personnel, and money) available for the research.
 Can we do it in a timely manner?
 Are resources available?
 Will it be accurate enough to be useful?

 Is the information worth the cost of the study?
Dr Arbab I B Faris 24
(contd)
2. Statement of Research Objectives:
This includes the specification of:
• Parameters of interest and the hypotheses (if any) to be
tested;
• Study variables (i.e. variables of relevance to the stated
objectives);
• Statistical techniques to be used at the analysis stage (at least
tentatively) ; and
• Elements and target population (these usually differ from one
study to another depending on the study objectives).
The nature of the study (i.e. whether descriptive or analytic)
may now be specified.

(contd)
3. Review Existing Sources of Data:
 Is the information required already
available?

At this stage one needs to check if any adequate data of
relevance exist in any accessible source(s).

Generally, there are two sources of data: primary and
secondary. As such data may either be primary or secondary.
(what about tertiary sources?)

Data and their
Sources
Primary and Secondary Data
 Definition:
Data which are collected at first hand either
by the researcher or by someone else for the
purpose of the research are known as
primary data.
 Definition:
Any data which have been gathered earlier
for some other purpose are secondary data in
the hands of the researcher.
Primary and Secondary Data
 As a researcher one should be fully
aware of the advantages and limitations
of each type of data.
 Emphasis will be on Secondary data.
Advantages of Secondary
Data
1. A major advantage of SD is that it is far
more economical ,as the cost of collecting
original data is saved.
2. It saves much of the researchers time. This
leads to prompt completion of the research.
3. Search for SD is helpful in gaining familiarity
with such data and thereby pinpointing to
its deficiencies and gaps.
Data
As such, the researcher can make his
primary data collection more specific and
more relevant to his research.
4. As a researcher explores the availability of
SD of relevance to his research, s/he finds,
in the process, that her/his understanding
of the problem has improved. S/He may
even have to change some of her/his earlier
ideas in the light of the secondary data.
Data
5. SD can be used as a basis for comparison
with the primary data the researcher has
just collected.
Disadvantages of Secondary
Data
1. SD seldom fit perfectly, in a number of
factors, into the framework of the current
research. These factors are:
- the units of analysis used in secondary
data may not be the same as required in
the current research.e.g., the size of a firm
can be expressed as the number of
employees, paid-up capital employed, gross
sales, gross or net profit,…etc.
Data
It is just possible that the unit of
measurement used in SD is different
from the one needed in the current
research. In this case, SD can not be
used.
Even if the units are the same as those
required by the current research,class
boundaries may be different from
those required.
Data
2. One does not always know how accurate the
SD are. In case the degree of inaccuracy is
high, the use of this data will undermine
the utility of the current research results.
3. A severe limitation in the use of SD is that
they be somewhat out of date. For, the utility
of SD declines progressively as time goes by,
and they are finally useful only for historical
purpose.
Evaluating Secondary Data
 It is always advisable to explore the possibility
of using SD in any research because it is
cheaper.In this connection there are four
requirements to be met:
1. Availability:
SD, when they exist, must be available for use.
When SD are either not available or
inaccessible, there is no alternative but to take
recourse to the collection of primary data.
2. Relevance:
Relevance of SD refers to the fact that
the data available must fit the
requirements of the research problem in
terms of units of measurement and
data should not be obsolete.
3. Accuracy:
Here one should consult the original
source to know the context in which data
have been collected, and the procedure
followed, as well as the extent of care
exercised in their collection.
4. Sufficiency:
It refers to the adequacy of SD. If SD are
inadequate, the compliance with the
preceding requirements will be in vain.
One may seek answers to questions
regarding the sample design, the
questionnaire, and the extent of
nonresponse and how it was handled.
 Generally, a thorough evaluation of SD and
understanding of their potential limitations
involves the applicability to the research
objectives, cost of acquisition, and data
accuracy.
(contd)
4. Consider the Suitable Data Collection
Mode:
The appropriate mode of data collection follows from the specified study
objectives and the nature of population members.
Basically there are three modes of data collection:
 Surveying:
A survey is the measurement and/or observation of the
characteristics of members of the population as they exist and
without exercising any control over the factors which may affect
them.
 Experimentation:
 Administrative (continuous) registration.

(contd)
5. Questionnaire Design
A questionnaire is the first data collection
tool. Its design refers to the writing of
simple worded direct and/or probing
topical questions using nontechnical
phrases and systematically grouping
them thematically avoiding leading
questions.
(contd)
6. Choose to conduct full or partial

coverage or a combination of both
1.A partial coverage involves measuring and/ or
observing the characteristics of a limited number
of members of the target population (i.e. a sample).
2.A complete coverage measures and/or observes the
characteristics of all members of the target
population.
Advantages of Partial over Complete
Coverage
Partial Coverage Complete Coverage

Less expensive More expensive
Less time More time
More accurate data (less Less accurate data (more
measurement errors) measurement errors)
Applicable when Not applicable when
measurement process is measurement process is
destructive. destructive.
Which to use?
 Because of these and some other reasons
partial coverage of the target population
members is the appropriate approach to
undertake in many applied researches.
 However, when the frame required for
selecting a random sample is lacking or
difficult to obtain, then conducting a
complete coverage becomes inevitable.
Which to use? (contd)
 Sometimes, both partial and complete
coverage are used concurrently in the
same investigation.
(contd)
7. Sample Design :
 A sample design is the process of
selecting some members of the target
population with the intent of using their
data for estimating a parameter or
testing a hypothesis.
Types of samples:
1.Random sample (probability
sample):
This is a selection procedure whereby
each member of the population is given a
known nonzero chance of selection into
the sample.
Types of samples (contd)
2. Nonrandom sample (nonprobability or
judgment sample)
This is based on some prior knowledge of the
population members whereby only those which
satisfy certain conditions are chosen.
The selection probability in this case is either

zero or one.
Types of samples (contd)
Comparison:
1. Probability samples are representative samples
and allow inference about population
characteristics to be drawn.
2. Probability samples are relatively more
expensive.
3. No inference can be drawn from nonprobability
samples.
4. Nonprobability samples are relatively less
expensive.
Popular types of random
sampling
1. Simple random sampling,
2. Stratified random sampling,
3. Cluster sampling , and
4. Systematic sampling.
Sample Design (contd)
The following factors determine the random
sample design to use in any particular
research:
(a) The population structure and nature of its
elements,
(b) The stated objectives,
(c) Readily available information (i.e. auxiliary
information),
(d) Total resources devoted for the
investigation.
Sampling Distributions
 Usually the selection of sample members is made at random.
As such, performance of the same selection procedure
repeatedly yields samples with different components. If a
method of estimation is used for these sample data, different
statistics will be obtained. The resulting statistics form the so-
called sampling distribution of the estimator upon which all
inference from sample surveys rests.
 We usually study the properties of the estimator by using this
distribution.
 Sampling distributions usually differ in accordance with the
sample design and estimator; that is, different sample designs
and estimators induce different sampling distributions.
Determination of Sample Size:
 To determine the number of elements to
include into the sample; i.e. sample size,
one needs to specify:
(a) The maximum allowable margin of error,
(b) The confidence level, and
(c) The population standard error (or its
estimate).
Sample size for estimating population mean under
different designs
The design Sample size , n
Simple Random z  
2

 
2
 

Sampling 



Stratified 1. Proportional allocation:

z  W  2 2

Random
h h
2 h 1
 2
Sampling H
z ( W  ) 2 2
Neyman allocation: 
 h h
2. 2 h 1
2
3. Optimum allocation:
z 2 (Wh  h / ch )(Wh  h ch )
2
2
Sample size for estimating population mean
under different designs (contd)
The design Sample size

2
Multistage  z  
 2 
  . deff cl
Sampling  



Systematic  z 
 2


2
Sampling   . deff sy
  
 
(contd)
8. Pilot Survey :
• At this stage one may think of conducting a
pilot (a pretest) survey to check the
adequacy of the questionnaire and
interviewers instructions as well as acquiring
some information about design variables of
use in determining the appropriate sample
size.
(contd)
9.Selection of the Sample:
 Prior to the selection of sample members one has to
specify the sampling units which, in many practical cases
(except under simple random sampling) ,differ from the
elements, and acquire the sampling frame.
 Use the random numbers tables to draw sampling units.

You may sample with or without replacement. In
practice sampling without replacement is widely used for
no obvious reason except that it avoids incurring
additional costs for practically no additional information.
(contd)
 Methods of Data Collection
 Face to face
Interviewer
 Telephone
-administrated
 By post Self-administrated
 E-mail/Internet
Self-administered interview
 Advantages:
 Cheap and easy to administer
 Preserves confidentiality
 Completed at respondent's convenience
 No influence by interviewer
Self-administered interview
 Disadvantages:
 Low response rate
 Questions can be misunderstood
 No control by interviewer
 Time and resouces loss
Interviewer-administered
interview
 Advantages:
 Participation by illiterate people
 Clarification of ambiguity
 Quick answers
Interviewer-administered
interview
 Disadvantages:
 Interviewer bias
 Needs more resources
 Only short questionnaires
possible
 Especially on telephone
 Difficult for sensitive issues
(11) Data management:
This refers to the preparation of data for analysis and includes:
Office editing:
I.e. revising the raw data as they come in the completed
questionnaires from the field for inconsistencies and nonresponse
(if any) and taking necessary steps for resolving them.
Postcoding:
This is giving codes to answers of open-ended questions which
usually take place as part of office editing process.
Data entering and verification:
I.e. entering coded answers into the computer using suitable
software.
This also involves data verification and validation of the entering
process which, among other activities, also involves producing
frequency tables.
(12) Data Organization and
Analysis:
This includes:
(a) Extracting descriptive measures from the
data,
(b) Using advanced statistical techniques to
analyze the data and draw inferences there
from (remember that the technique(s) to
use depends on the objectives and type of
variable)
(c) Calculating the sampling errors (and
sometimes the design effects - deffs).
(d) Interpreting the results.
(13) Report Writing:
 Report writing is presenting the result of your
research, analysis, and investigations, in a written
form.
 Its main purpose is to communicate the results of
research, field work, or any other activity.
 Successfully written research report presents the
concrete evidence of the research conducted. In
report writing, you also must consider clarity,
organization, and content

Report Writing (cont’d)
The report usually includes, in addition to the
abstract, an introduction, the
methodology used, a summary of main
findings, the sampling errors together
with any problems encountered during the
course of the investigation, and
recommendations.
A list of references should also be annexed.

(14) Abstract
 This is an abbreviated summary

of the research problem,
methodology, findings, and
significance.

(15) Dissemination of Research
Results
 This involves communicating the main
research results and findings.

Presenting the Results
 Introduction
 Research Purpose
 Research Objectives
 Methodology (Research Approach)
 Findings
 Limitations
 Conclusions and Recommendations
 Appendices

RM b62011 (Editted)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

RM b62011 (Editted)

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

RM b62011 (Editted)

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Research Methods

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 1

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 2

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 3

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 4

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 5

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 6

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 8

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 9

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 10

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 11

 A Topic is chosen for research either

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 12

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 13

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 14

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 15

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 16

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 17

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 18

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 19

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 20

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 21

Why Developing a Research Proposal?

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 22

 Checking the adequacy of resources (namely; time,

 Are resources available?

 Will it be accurate enough to be useful?

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 25

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 26

 Administrative (continuous) registration.

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 41

6. Choose to conduct full or partial

Partial Coverage Complete Coverage

The selection probability in this case is either

Stratified 1. Proportional allocation:

The design Sample size

 Use the random numbers tables to draw sampling units.

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 66

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 67

 This is an abbreviated summary

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 68

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 69

Dr Arbab I B Faris Dr Arbab I B Faris 70

You might also like