Lecture # 21

Ch. 7. Dimensional Analysis, Similitude, and Modeling

Fluid Mechanics-I (ME321)

Dr. Ali Turab Jafry

2021 Fall Semester

Ghulam Ishaq Khan Institute of Engineering Sciences and Technology Faculty of Mechanical Engineering 1
 Real and Model Flies
 Model is larger-than-life & "flies" in mineral oil and the flapping frequency is greatly
reduced compared to the real fly. The appropriate motion of the wings is replicated by use of
servo motors. Force transducers attached to the wing roots measure the force on the model
wings.
 Dimensional Analysis

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

■ apply the Buckingham pi theorem.

■ develop a set of dimensionless variables for a given flow situation.

■ discuss the use of dimensionless variables in data analysis.

■ apply the concepts of modeling and similitude to develop prediction equations.

 Background
 A large number of problems that rely on experimentally obtained data for their solution.
 Analysis in most times, becomes insufficient to provide solutions to real fluid problems.

Theoretical Numerical Experimental

Accurate Solution

Planning and execution

of experiments
Result
Experimental
Widely applicable
Understanding and
correlating data

Laboratory Experiment Outside Lab

“Model” “Real systems”
 Dimensional Analysis
• Consider steady flow of an incompressible Newtonian fluid through
long, smooth-walled, horizontal, circular pipe.
• Study pressure drop / length along the pipe as a result of friction
• Analytical solution requires experimental data
• First step: decide on the factors, or variables, that effects the
pressure drop per unit length, Δpℓ. These are the pipe diameter, D,
fluid density, ρ, fluid viscosity, μ, and mean velocity, V, This
relationships can be expressed as

pl  f  D,  ,  ,V 
• At this point the nature of the function is unknown and the
objective of the experiments to be performed is to determine
the nature of this function.
Dimensional Analysis
To perform the experiments
in a meaningful and
systematic manner, it would
be necessary to change one
of the variables, such as the
velocity, while holding all
others constant, and
measure the corresponding
pressure drop.

Nature of the function is

difficult to obtain by using this
approach. Moreover,
experiments (c) and (d) are
difficult to carry out.

Another way is to use

dimensionless products or
dimensionless groups.
 Dimensional Analysis
Dpl  VD 
   
V 2   
Number of variables reduced from five to two.
Number and complexity of experiments also reduced.
Results of experiments are represented by a single
universal curve.
Two groups in the above equation are dimensionless.

Results presented in the form of the graph are independent of the system of units
used.

This type of analysis is called Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis is a method for reducing the number and complexity of

experimental variables which effect a given physical phenomenon.

Dimensional analysis is based on the Buckingham pi theorem

 Dimensional Analysis
Qualitative description of physical quantities can be given in terms of basic
dimensions such as mass, M, length, L, and time, T. Alternatively, force, F, L,
and T can be used, since

Thus, dimensions of the two groups in the referenced equation are

 Buckingham Pi Theorem
How many dimensionless products are required to replace the original
list of variables?
Buckingham pi theorem states:
If an equation involving k variables is dimensionally homogeneous,
it can be reduced to a relationship among k – r independent
dimensionless products, where r is the minimum number of
reference dimensions required to describe the variables.
Dimensionless products are referred to as “pi terms” and denoted by
letter Π
Pi theorem is based on the principle of dimensional homogeneity,
which states:
If an equation truly expresses a proper relationship between variables in
a physical process, it will be dimensionally homogeneous; i.e. each of
its additive terms will have the same dimensions.
 Buckingham Pi Theorem
How many dimensionless products are required to replace the original
list of variables?
Buckingham pi theorem states:
If an equation involving k variables is dimensionally
homogeneous, it can be reduced to a relationship among k – r
independent dimensionless products, where r is the minimum
number of reference dimensions required to describe the
variables.
Thus, dimensionally homogeneous equation involving k variables
u1  f  u2 , u3 , ..., uk 
can be written in dimensionless form

1     2 ,  3 , ...,  k  r 
 Determination of Pi Terms – Method of Repeating Variables
Step 1. List all the variables (independent) that are involved in the problem.
(determine ‘k’)

Step 2. Express each of the variables in terms of basic dimensions. (determine ‘r’)

Step 3. Determine the required number of pi terms. (i.e. ‘k-r’)

Step 4. Select a number of repeating variables.

Step 5. Form a pi term by multiplying one of the nonrepeating variables by the

product of repeating variables each raised to an exponent that will make the
combination dimensionless.

Step 6. Repeat Step 5 for each of the remaining repeating variables.

Step 7. Check all the resulting pi terms to make sure they are dimensionless.

Step 8. Express the final form as a relationship among the pi terms and think about
what it means.
1     2 ,  3 , ...,  k  r 
where Π1 contains dependent variable in the numerator
 Determination of Pi Terms – Method of Repeating Variables
Step 1. List all the variables (independent) that are involved in the problem.
(determine ‘k’)
Variable includes any quantity, including dimensional and nondimensional constants,
which play a role in the phenomenon under investigation.
Uses experimenter’s knowledge of the problem and the physical laws that govern the
phenomenon. Typically include Geometry of the system, fluid properties, external
effects.
All variables should be independent. e.g. diameter and cross-sectional area are not
independent.

Step 2. Express each of the variables in terms of basic dimensions. (determine ‘r’)

M, L, and T or F, L, and T

Step 3. Determine the required number of pi terms. (i.e. ‘k-r’)

Buckingham pi theorem: Step 1 – Step 2.

 Determination of Pi Terms – Method of Repeating Variables
Step 4. Select a number of repeating variables. The number required is equal to the
number of reference dimensions.

All of the required reference dimensions must be included within the group of
repeating variables, and each repeating variable must be dimensionally independent
of the others. This means that the repeating variables cannot themselves be
combined to form a dimensionless product.

Do not choose the dependent variable (variable we are interested in) as one of the
repeating variables, since the repeating variables will generally appear in more than
one pi term.

Step 5. Form a pi term by multiplying one of the nonrepeating variables by the

product of repeating variables each raised to an exponent that will make the
combination dimensionless. Typical form:

ui is nonrepeating variable, u1, u2, u3, are repeating variables, and ai, bi, ci, are
determined so that the combination is dimensionless.
 Determination of Pi Terms – Method of Repeating Variables
Step 6. Repeat Step 5 for each of the remaining repeating variables.

Step 7. Check all the resulting pi terms to make sure they are dimensionless.

Step 8. Express the final form as a relationship among the pi terms and think about
what it means. 1     2 ,  3 , ...,  k  r 
where Π1 contains dependent variable in the numerator

The relationship in terms of the pi terms will be used to describe the problem.

You need only work with the pi terms—not with the individual variables.

The actual functional relationship among the pi terms must be determined by

experiment.
 Example
1. For the steady flow of an incompressible Newtonian fluid through long, smooth-walled,
horizontal, circular pipe, the pressure drop per unit length along the pipe (k = 5). We are
interested in pressure drop per unit length. The variable involved are:

pl  f  D,  ,  ,V 
2. Variables in terms of basic dimensions (r = 3)

3. Apply pi theorem; k – r = 2. Two pi terms are required.

4. Select repeating variables: D, V, and ρ (Number = r = 3). Generally, we would try to select
as repeating variables those that are the simplest, dimensionally
5. Form first pi term. Typically, start with dependent variable and repeating variables:

1  pl D aV b  c
 Example
6. Repeat Step 5. Form second pi term from remaining nonrepeating variables and so on
(same procedure as done in step 5).
 Example
7. Make sure the pi terms are actually dimensionless (Step 7). Check using both FLT and MLT
dimensions. Thus,

8. Finally (Step 8), we can express the result of the dimensional analysis as:

 Results indicate that this problem can be studied with two pi terms instead of 5.
 Selection of Variables
 Selection of variables is the most important and difficult step in applying
dimensional analysis.

 For convenience, term variable will be used to indicate any quantity involved,
including dimensional and dimensionless constants.

 There is no simple procedure whereby the variables can be easily identified.

Generally, one must rely on a good understanding of the phenomenon involved
and the governing physical laws.

 If extraneous variables are included, then too many pi terms appear in the final
solution, and it may be difficult, time consuming, and expensive to eliminate these
experimentally.

 If important variables are omitted, then an incorrect result will be obtained.

 Most engineering problems involve simplifying assumptions. Simplicity and

accuracy must be balanced.
 Selection of Variables
• For most Engineering Problems, Variables can be classified into
three general groups:

– Geometry. Geometric characteristics can be described by a series of lengths

and angles.

– Material Properties. Response of a system to applied external effects such

as forces, pressures, and changes in temperature is dependent on the nature
of materials involved in the system. Therefore, material properties that relate
the external effects and the responses must be included as variables. For
example, for Newtonian fluids the viscosity of the fluid is the property that
relates the applied forces to the rates of deformation of the fluid.

– External effects. Variables that produce, or tends to produce, a change in the

system e.g. forces (structural mechanics), pressure, velocity, gravity (fluid
mechanics).
 Selection of Variables
 The above general classes of variables are intended as broad categories and there
could be variable that do not fit into the above categories.

 Since we wish to keep the number of variables to a minimum, it is important that all
variables are independent.

 If we have a problem in which the variables are

 and it is known that there is an additional relationship among some of the

variables, for example,

 Then q is not required and can be omitted.

 Conversely, if it is known that the only way the variables u, v, w, . . . enter the
problem is through the relationship expressed by above Eq., then the variables u,
v, w, . . . can be replaced by the single variable q, therefore reducing the variables.
 Selection of Variables - Summary
1. Clearly define the problem. What is the main variable of interest (the dependent
variable)?
2. Consider the basic laws that govern the phenomenon. Even a crude theory that
describes the essential aspects of the system may be helpful.
3. Start the variable selection process by grouping the variables into three broad
classes: geometry, material properties, and external effects.
4. Consider other variables that may not fall into one of the above categories. For
example, time will be an important variable if any of the variables are time
dependent.
5. Be sure to include all quantities that enter the problem even though some of them
may be held constant (e.g., the acceleration of gravity, g). For a dimensional
analysis it is the dimensions of the quantities that are important – not specific
values!
6. Make sure that all variables are independent. Look for relationships among
subsets of the variables.
 Uniqueness of Pi Terms
 Specific pi terms obtained depend on the somewhat arbitrary selection of repeating variables.
 For example, D, V, and ρ was used to obtain:

 What if, D, V, and μ was used? The pi term becomes:

 The second pi term remains the same.

 The final result:

Both results are correct

 Because pi terms are different, the resulting graphs will be different.
 However, the pressure value will be same in both.
Conclusion: there is not a unique set of pi terms which
arises from a dimensional analysis. However, the required number of pi terms is fixed