IMMUNOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO
BACTERIA IN THE HUMAN BODY
 OUTLINE

• Immunology and Bacteria

• Immunological Responses to Bacteria
• Immunological Responses to Streptococcus pneumoniae
• Complications to Bacterial Immunological Responses
• Conclusion
 IMMUNOLOGY AND BACTERIA

• Bacteria constitute one of the three basic taxonomic domains of cellular organisms
• Bacteria serve multiple function however, their most interesting role to the field of
biological sciences is their pathogenic role.
• Immunology is the study of the branch of the body system (immune system) that protects
us from infections.
• Bacterial infections are very common, important and sometimes fatal, hence we need to
understand how the body reacts to and overcomes infections.
 IMMUNOLOGICAL RESPONSE TO BACTERIA

The body reacts to bacteria infections in three ways;

1. Through complement mediated lysis: when bacteria invade the body, they are attacked by immune
proteins. Complement system contains plasma proteins that interacts with pathogens and mark them for
destruction.
2. Through phagocytosis: Bacteria may also be destroyed by phagocytes such as macrophages and dendritic
cells. Immune proteins and antibodies bind to the bacteria surface and destroy opsonized bacteria.
3. Through cell mediated lysis: Some bacteria that are engulfed during phagocytosis avoid destruction
mechanism of the phagocyte. These bacteria cannot be detected by antibody or complement but are
destroyed using cell mediated response.

Laing & Hutchinson, 2012

 IMMUNOLOGICAL RESPONSES TO
STREPTOCOCCUS PNEUMONIAE

• Streptococcus pneumoniae is found worldwide

• S. pneumoniae is the leading cause of pneumonia in all ages.
• Streptococcus pneumoniae is a gram-positive coccus. Usually they are found in pairs of cocci, or
diplococci, but they may also occur in short chains or singly.
• It also causes otitis media, bacteraemia, meningitis, peritonitis, and sinusitis.

Engholm et al. 2017

 INNATE IMMUNE RESPONSE TO STREPTOCOCCUS
PNEUMONIAE
• On entry into the respiratory tract, the pathogen associated
molecular patterns (PAMPs) of the S. pneumoniae are recognized by
the pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs)
• Important PRRs in the recognition of the pneumococcus include:
Toll-like receptors like TLR2, 4 and 9 which recognize PAMPS
(licoteichoic acid and lipoproteins) on the cell wall of the bacteria,
NOD-like receptors like NOD 2 which recognize pneumococcus
that have invaded the cell and other receptors like rig like receptors
and several DNA receptors
• Together these PRRS work together to introduce immune
intermediaries (cytokines and chemokines) like interferons,
interleukins and transcription factors which stimulate the recruit and
activate the innate immune cells like neutrophils, macrophages,
NKs, basophils, etc. which combat the pneumococcus and initiate
the adaptive immune response through the creation of memory cells.
Koppe, Suttorp, and Opitz 2012
 ADAPTIVE IMMUNE RESPONSE TO S.
PNEUMONIAE
• The pathogens are recognized by antigen presenting cells
(dendritic cells) which engulf them in the respiratory epithelium.
• At the same time IgA produced by plasma cells attach to the
antigens.
• The DCs mature in the lymphoid nodules and present the antigens
through the major histocompability complex class II (MHC-II)
• This leads to the production of several CD4+ T-helper cells like
Th1, Th17 and Th2.
Th1 leads to the release of INF which activates the alveolar
macrophages.
• Th17 releases interleukins which enhance innate immunity
through the recruitment of the neutrophils in the blood streams
who then enter the alveolar to combat the pneumococcus.
• Th2 activates antigen specific B lymphocytes which proliferate
Villena et al. 2015 and differentiate into IgG producing plasma cells.
 COMPLICATIONS TO BACTERIAL
IMMUNOLOGICAL RESPONSES:
 IMMUNOLOGICAL TOLERANCE TO THE BACTERIAL ANTIGEN: property of the host
and could be as a result of 3 reasons:
 Fetal exposure to antigen
 High persistence dose of circulating antigen
 Molecular mimicry: the case of Streptococcus pyogene in rheumatic fever and glomerulonephritis.

Kenneth Todar, 2012

 COMPLICATIONS CONT’D

 ANTIGENIC DISGUISE: Ability of some bacterial antigens to ‘hide’ from immune responses
targetted at them
E.g: Production of coagulase and clumping factor that causes host fibrin to clot and deposit on cell
surfaces infected with Staphylococcus aureus

 BACTERIAL IMMUNE EVASION THROUGH MANIPULATION OF HOST INHIBITORY

IMMUNE SIGNALING:
E.g: Moraxella catarrhalis and Neisseria meningitides which evolved specific virulence factors to
engage inhibitory receptors which co-ligate with and attenuate PRR signaling

Van Avondt et. al, 2015

 COMPLICATIONS CONT’D

 PERSISTENCE OF A PATHOGEN AT BODILY SITES INACCESSIBLE TO SPECIFIC

IMMUNE RESPONSES:
Some bacterial pathogens persist on luminal surfaces of the GIT, oral cavity, urinary tract,
lumen of the salivary gland, mammary gland etc. If no cell destruction, they may avoid
inducing inflammatory responses and hence remain.
E.G: Carrier state of typhoid fever which remains unrecognized in the host by being able to
colonize the billary duct away from immune forces

Kenneth Todar, 2012

 CONCLUSION

• The immune system responds to bacteria in three basic ways; through the complement cascade, through
phagocytosis and through cell mediated lysis.
• The innate immune system works by PAMP-PRR interaction and this initiates a cascade of cytokines and
chemokines which stimulate phagocytes and other immune cells that destroy the bacteria.
• APCs, T cells and antibodies are the main protagonists in the adaptive immune system’s war against bacteria.
• There are quite a number of complications in the human immunological responses to an invading bacterial
antigen.
• Research! Research! Research! Seems to be the mantra when it comes to understanding immune responses to
bacteria
 REFERENCES
 
Engholm, Ditte Høyer et al. 2017. “A Visual Review of the Human Pathogen Streptococcus Pneumoniae.” FEMS Microbiology
Reviews 41(6): 854–79. https://academic.oup.com/femsre/article/41/6/854/4345647 (August 17, 2019).
Kenneth Todar. (2012). http://textbookofbacteriology.net/antiimmuno.html. Accessed on 18/08/2019
Koppe, Uwe, Norbert Suttorp, and Bastian Opitz. 2012. “Recognition of Streptococcus Pneumoniae by the Innate Immune System.”
Cellular Microbiology 14(4): 460–66. http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/j.1462-5822.2011.01746.x (August 17, 2019).
Laing, K., & Hutchinson, F. (2012). Immune Responses to Bacteria.
Van Avondt K, Sorge NMv, Meyaard L (2015) Bacterial Immune Evasion through Manipulation of Host Inhibitory Immune
Signaling. PLoS Pathog 11(3): e1004644. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1004644
Villena, Julio et al. 2015. Recent Trends in Immunology Immunobiotic and Recombinant Lactic Acid Bacteria: Soldiers in the
Fight Against Streptococcus Pneumoniae. www.smgebooks.com (August 17, 2019).
THANK YOU!