THEILERIOSIS

INTRODUCTION
■ Bovine Tropical theileriosis (Theileria annulate infection)
– important tick-borne disease in several regions of the world

■ Bovine tropical theileriosis

– poses major problems for the health and management of cattle
– causes huge economic losses in terms of productivity and health in
India
■ Caused by the tick-borne obligate intracellular protozoan parasite

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■ Theileria annulata infects both wild and domestic bovidae

throughout the world

■ Transmitted transstadially by Hyalomma anatolicum

– a three-host tick - which acts as a biological vector

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■ The parasite causes
– infection of leucocytes by sporozoites
– followed by maturation of schizonts into merozoites
– subsequent infection of red blood cells (RBCS) with formation of
piroplasms
■ The disease is of great significance because –
– cows that have recovered from acute or primary theileriosis remain
carriers for a long period
– possibly for their lifetime
■ acting as reservoirs of infection for ticks

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ETIOLOGY AND SYNONYMS

Theileria parva: East Coast Fever, Corridor Disease,

January Disease, Zimbabwean Tick
Fever

Theileria annulata: Tropical Theileriosis, Mediterranean

Coast Fever, Mediterranean
Theileriosis

T. buffeli/orientalis group: Theileria-Associated Bovine Anemia,

Oriental Theileriosis

T. lestoquardi: Malignant Ovine (or Small Ruminant)

Theileriosis

T. luwenshuni, T. uilenbergi: Cervine Theileriosis

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 ETIOLOGY IN CATTLE –
■ At least 15 species in the genus Theileria (phylum Apicomplexa, order Piroplasmida)
infect domesticated ruminants
■ The two most virulent organisms in cattle are
1. Theileria annulata causes tropical theileriosis
2. T. parva causes East Coast fever
■ Other organisms known to infect cattle include
– T. velifera, T. taurotragi, T. mutans
– Theileria sp. (buffalo) and the T buffeli/ orientalis group
– all of these species are less virulent than T. parva or T. annulata,
■ T buffeli/ T. orientalis group can cause oriental theileriosis, which is also
called Theileria-associated bovine anemia (TABA)

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■ T. orientalis - Most recent outbreaks of oriental theileriosis have
been caused by the Ikeda (type 2) genotype
■ other genotypes can also cause disease
■ T. annulata and T. lestoquardi - Hyalomma spp. are the vectors
■ T. parva - Rhipicephalus appendiculatus is the primary vector

Rhipicephalus

Hyalomma

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 SMALL RUMINANTS –
■ Clinical theileriosis in sheep and goats is usually caused by
– T. lestoquardi (formerly T hirci)
– T. uilenbergi
– T. luwenshuni
■ The disease caused by T. lestoquardi is called malignant ovine theileriosis
– or variants of that name (e.g., malignant sheep theileriosis, malignant small
ruminant theileriosis)
■ T. luwenshuni and T. uilenbergi - cervine theileriosis,
– as these agents also infect some cervids
■ T. separata, T. ovis, T. recondita - Species of Theileria that infect small
ruminants, typically without clinical signs

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SUSCEPTIBLE HOST

■ T. parva affects cattle and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis)- cattle is important
reservoir hosts for this organism
■ T. annulata also infect sheep and goats, but does not cause significant illness in
these animals

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TRANSMISSION AND PATHOGENESIS –

■ Theileria spp. enter the body as sporozoites in the saliva of a

feeding tick

■ T. parva and T. annulata only mature after an infected tick

attaches to a host
– the tick must be attached for a few days before these
organisms are transmitted

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TRANSMISSION AND PATHOGENESIS –

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■ This reproduction leads to several parasites inside the red blood
cells, which finally rupture and release the merozoites

■ Enter new erythrocytes

■ The macroschizonts are also called Koch’s spheres or Koch’s bodies

honoring their discoverer

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■ Ruminants (including animals that recover) - can carry some
species of Theileria for months or years
■ Transplacental transmission has been documented for several
species of Theileria, including
– T. annulata and T. orientalis in cattle
– T. lestoquardi in sheep and goats

■ The frequency of vertical transmission might differ depending on

whether the dam is acutely infected or a carrier
■ Ticks can remain infected on the pasture for up to 2 years
– depending on the climatic conditions

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INCUBATION PERIOD

■ The incubation period for tropical theileriosis - approximately

1-3 weeks

■ Disease not maintained in the absence of these field vectors

■ Prepatent Periods - About 5 days after infection by ticks,

schizonts may appear in the lymphocytes

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CLINICAL SIGNS

■ T. annulate is characterized by

– Fever

– generalized lymphadenopathy

– anorexia

– loss of condition

– in some animals, nasal discharge and/or diarrhea

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CLINICAL SIGNS
■ Tropical theileriosis (T. annulata) generally resembles East Coast
fever,
– but TT also destroy red blood cells, causing anemia and, in some
cases, jaundice or hemoglobinuria
– Petechiae are often found on the mucous membranes, and
hemorrhagic diarrhea may be seen in the late stages
– Some animals abort
– Newborns born to infected cattle develop clinical signs within a
few days
– Neurological signs
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Sheep and goats –
■The clinical signs in small ruminants infected with T. lestoquardi –
– fever, anorexia, weight loss, lymphadenopathy, respiratory signs
(coughing, nasal discharge, dyspnea), anemia, icterus and diarrhea
■Reproductive losses including abortions may be seen
■Similar signs have been reported in sheep infected with T. luwenshuni or
T. uilenbergi
■Experimental infection of sheep and goats with T. annulata -
– moderate clinical signs, with fever and lymphadenopathy in some cases
■The signs were milder in goats than sheep

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■ Urticarial lesions due to theileriosis have been reported in an
indigenous cow
– highly suggestive of the allergic consequence of acute parasitaemia

– responsible for intense pruritus in that animal

– subcutaneous nodules are also visible in some cases

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LESIONS
■ There is enlargement of lymphoid tissues, including Peyer’s patches
■ Serous effusion and gelatinous or hemorrhagic edema of connective tissues
■ The spleen is enlarged (acute disease)
■ prolonged course, it may be shrunken and strap-like
■ There is ulcerative abomasitis
■ “infarcts” of the liver and kidney are actually proliferative foci of perivascular
lymphocytes
■ These foci (project slightly) - produce a mottling of small gray-white patches visible on
the surface of the liver and kidney
■ On cut surface
– the lymph nodes are diffusely discolored with a red-brown cortex containing focal
hemorrhages, and a dark red-brown medullary area

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Ulcers on the mucosa of the
Enlarged, ochre-coloured liver
abomasum of infected calf

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■ The lungs –
– congested and edematous
– increased texture on palpation
– increased weight
■ Small hemorrhages associated with foci of hyaline degeneration occur in the
muscles
■ Petechiae are commonly present under the tongue and in the vulva
■ Erosive or catarrhal enteritis and lymphocytic hyperplasia of gut mucosa

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 Lymph node smear showing a
Theileria annulata in cattle RBC schizont in a mononuclear cell

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 DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS

• Heartwater

• Trypanosomiasis

• Babesiosis

• Anaplasmosis

• Malignant catarrhal fever

• Contagious bovine pleuropneumonia

The parasites must also be differentiated from other species of Theileria

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DIAGNOSIS
■ A definitive diagnosis is achieved by the combination of clinical
examinations and appropriate laboratory testing

■ In the field - finding Theileria parasites in Giemsa-stained blood

smears and lymph node needle biopsy smears

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CLINICAL DIAGNOSIS

■ Fever ensues and continues throughout the course of infection

– this rise in temperature is rapid and may reach 107oF/42°C

■ There is marked petechial and ecchymotic haemorrhage on most

mucous membranes of the conjunctiva and the buccal cavity

■ Anorexia

■ Loss of condition

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CLINICAL DIAGNOSIS

■ Other clinical signs may include

– lacrimation, corneal opacity, nasal discharge, terminal dyspnoea,
and diarrhoea

– Before death the animal is usually recumbent, the temperature falls

– there is a severe dyspnoea due to pulmonary oedema (frequently

seen as a frothy nasal discharge)

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 Oedema of the jaw in a cow with bovine tropical
Ocular oedema in a cow with theileriosis 
bovine tropical theileriosis

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■ SHEEP- The most prominent clinical signs of T. lestoquardi
infections include
– generalised enlargement of the superficial lymph nodes, high
fever, listlessness, anorexia, emaciation, intermittent diarrhoea or
constipation, respiratory signs (coughing, nasal discharge,
dyspnoea), icterus and loss of weight
– Reproductive losses including abortions may be seen

– Sheep infected with T. lestoquardi also display anaemia due to

erythrocyte destruction 31
LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS
■ Diagnosis of acute theileriosis –
– based on clinical signs
– knowledge of disease situation
– vector distribution
– examination of Giemsa-stained blood, lymph node and tissue
impression smears
– At necropsy, schizonts may be found in impression smears from most
internal organs
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LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS
■ T. annulata - diagnosed by the detection of schizonts in white blood
cells or piroplasms in erythrocytes
■ The piroplasmic stage follows the schizont
– usually less pathogenic and is thus often found in recovering or less
acute cases
■ Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests and DNA probes are
sometimes used to detect and identify Theileria species

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SAMPLES

■ In T. annulata, both the schizont and piroplasm stages may be

pathogenic

■ Schizonts are scarce in the peripheral blood of acutely sick animals

and their presence in blood smears indicates a poor prognosis

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SAMPLES
■ Theileria-parasitised cells may be found in:
■ Blood or buffy coat smears air-dried and fixed in methanol for
demonstration of schizonts
■ Lymph node for demonstration of schizonts
■ Impression smears from lung, spleen, kidney and lymph node, air-
dried and fixed in methanol, for demonstration of schizonts
■ Lung, kidney, brain, liver, spleen, and lymph nodes for
histopathology: demonstration of schizonts and infiltrations of
immature lymphocytes
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PROCEDURE
IDENTIFICATION OF AGENT –

■Microscopic examination

– The presence of multinucleate

intracytoplasmic and free schizonts
(in lymph node biopsy smears) is a
characteristic diagnostic feature of
acute infections with T. parva and T.
annulate

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■ Piroplasms of Theileria may persist for months or years in
recovered animals

– may be detected intermittently in subsequent examinations

■ Negative results of microscopic examination of blood films

do not exclude latent infection

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TREATMENT -

■ Chemotherapeutic agents such as buparvaquone are available to

treat T. parva and T. annulata infections
■ Buparvaquone treats Theileria infections with great efficacy when
used in the early stages of disease
■ Imidocarb and oxytetracyclines - positive response on cattle with low
parasitaemia,
– a poor response in severely infected cattle
Oxytetracyclines - usually <60% effective

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SANITARY PROPHYLAXIS
■Bovine theileriosis is generally controlled by the use of
acaricides to kill ticks
– but this method is not sustainable
– acaricides are expensive
– cause environmental damage
– over time ticks develop resistance to them requiring newer
acaricides to be developed

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SANITARY PROPHYLAXIS

■An alternate method to control Theileria transmission by ticks

– development of a vaccine that targets exposed antigens of the tick

■The immunised animals when exposed to ticks, display interference

that reduce tick growth and increase mortality of the ticks

■Besides controlling the tick vectors, proper management of animals

can also reduce infection or re-infection with Theileria

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■ A combination of strategic tick control and vaccination are desirable,
however, these are yet to be successfully applied on a large scale in
endemic areas

■ Animals that recover from Theileriosis may suffer from weight loss,
reduced milk production and delayed maturity

■ These animals also remain a carrier and may contribute to

disseminating infection

■ Consequently, these losses have a major impact on animal welfare

and stock-holder prosperity worldwide
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VACCINATION
■ Live attenuated vaccines

■ Reliable vaccines of known efficacy have been developed for T. parva

and T.
■ schizont-infected cell lines that have been isolated from cattle and
attenuated during in-vitro culture
■ The vaccine must remain frozen until shortly before administration

■ Generic Name: THEILERIOSIS VACCINE

■ Composition: Rakshavac-T (Theileriosis vaccine, Live ) is indicated for
preventive vaccination
■ 3 mL reconstituted vaccine should be injected subcutaneously

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