RESEARCH

RESEARCH
BY
MRS MWEHA
Outline
• Introduction to research; Definitions, purpose

of research, importance of research in health,
benefits of research, types of research (basic
and applied), approaches in research
(qualitative/quantitative), conceptual and
theoretical frameworks,
Outline
• Concepts ( research process, Introduction
(research idea, problem identification,
background of the study problem, problem
statement, research questions, research
objectives, hypothesis, (purpose, types),
classification of variables (control, extraneous,
intervening, antecedent, suppressor, distorter,
exogenous and endogenous) justification,
purpose of the study
Outline
• Literature review; Definition, reasons for reviewing
literature, scope of literature review, performing
literature search-formulating answerable questions,
sources of literature (primary and secondary), how to
retrieve literature (steps), tips on good reviewing of
literature, organization of literature review), Citation
and referencing (referencing style (APA), Harvard,
Intellectual skills (reading, writing, argument
formation, reasoning, critical thinking),and
assumptions of a study, scope of the study
Outline
• Quantitative: structured interview (types, advantages and
disadvantages) rules pertaining to interviews, communication
during interviews, training of interviewers, self administered
questionnaire: types, rules for constructing questionnaire and
questionnaire items and general principles for writing
questions,, steps in developing questionnaire, ordering of the
items in a questionnaire types of questions, types of
responses, structure of a questionnaire (format and layout
,question order, length of the questionnaire, the cover letter),
presentation of the questionnaire, pretesting of the
questionnaire, data processing and analysis methods (steps in
data analysis (quantitative and qualitative),
Outline
• qualitative data analysis methods (categorization, themes,
subthemes), statistical packages used in qualitative data
(Excel) and quantitative data analysis (Excel, SPSS, Strata),
levels of measurements ( nominal, ordinal, ratio), data
presentation (ratios, rates, percentages, proportions),
Frequency distribution (tables, contingency, cross
tabulations), graphs and charts (bar graphs, line graph,
histograms, scatter graphs, pie charts), how to create
tables and figures from data ,how to label tables and
figures, choosing a method of data presentation, how to
present findings (narrative, draw table/figure, title),
Outline
• Bioethics; definition, development and history of
bioethics in research, reasons for addressing
bioethics in research, principles of bioethics (respect
for persons, beneficence, distributive justice,
informed consent, elements of an informed consent,
anonymity and confidentiality), bioethical issues for
special and vulnerable groups. Regulation of
conduct of research: authority letters (Institution,
National Commission for Science and Technology,
Institutional Ethics and Research Committee)
Outline
• . Methodology; research designs:- (observational and
experimental) characteristics of a good research design, study
area, study population, target population, sampling frame,
sampling bias, sampling errors (type I and type II), sampling
methods: probability (simple random, systematic, stratified,
cluster, multistage) non probability (purposive sampling,
snowball sampling, quota sampling, convenient sampling),
sample size determination (statistical sample size determination
tables), data collection methods (qualitative/quantitative), tools
for data collection qualitative (observation, key informants
interview, desk review, social mapping) organization advantages
and disadvantages..
Outline
• Proposal Writing; Components (title, fore matter,
background of the problem, problem statement,
purpose of the study, objectives of the study, research
questions, theoretical background or framework,
conceptual framework, limitations and assumptions,
literature review, methodology, time schedule, budget,
references, appendix), qualities of a good research
proposal, preliminary activities before writing a project
proposal, qualities of a good research proposal,
preliminary activities before writing a project proposal.
Outline
• Biostatistics; Introduction to data analysis, data
tabulation and display, measurement scales
(nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio) pilot study and
purpose, descriptive statistics (measures of central
tendency and measures of dispersion or variability,
measures of relationships, inferential statistics(Chi-
square, analysis of variance, T-test), results:
differentiating between findings and
interpretations, linking findings to the research
questions.
Outline
• Discussion; Interpret and discuss the findings as
per specific objectives, how to link the findings
with existing literature, explain emerging issues
(contradictions with previous findings), Discuss
the implications of the findings, meaning of the
findings, constructing a discussion. Conclusions;
how to conclude (base conclusion on
findings/specific objectives, indicate whether
purpose of study was achieved), no citations.
Outline
• Recommendations; based on findings and
research results, recommendations for further
research based on emerging issues that were
not within the scope of the current study.
Outline
• Report Writing; title, dedication, abstract, table of
contents, list of tables, figures, abbreviations and
acronyms, introduction, literature review,
methodology, results and discussions, conclusions
and recommendations, references, appendices
(country map, map of study area, authority letters
(Training Institution, National Commission for
Science and Technology), tools for data collection,
forums for dissemination of research findings.
Definition of Terms used in Research
• Accuracy
In survey research, accuracy refers to the
match between a sample and the target
population. It also indicates how close a value
obtained from a survey instrument or
assessment is to the actual (true) value
• Alternative Hypothesis
The experimental hypothesis stating that
there is some real difference between two or
more groups. It is the alternative to the null
hypothesis, which states that there is no
difference between groups.
• Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)
A statistical test that determines whether the means of two or more
groups are significantly different.
• Anonymity
An ethical safeguard against invasion of privacy whereby the
researcher is unable to identify the respondents by their responses.
• Association
The relationship between objects or variables. Two variables are
positively associated when the values of one increase as the values of
the other increases. They are negatively associated when the values of
one decrease as the values of the other increase. Income and
education are usually positively associated and student absentism is
generally negatively associated with student achievement.
• Bias
Influences that distort the results of a re Case Study
An intensive investigation of the current and past
behaviors and experiences of a single person, family,
group, or organization.
• Categorical Data
Variables with discrete, non-numeric or qualitative
categories (e.g. gender or marital status). The categories
can be given numerical codes, but they cannot be ranked,
added, multiplied or measured against each other. Also
referred to as nominal data.
• Categorical Data Analysis
Categorical data classify responses or observations into
discrete categories (e.g., respondents' highest level of
education is often classified as less than high school, high
school, college, and post-graduate). While there are many
techniques for analyzing such data, 'categorical data
analysis' usually refers to the analysis of one or more
categorical dependent variables and the relationships to
on or more predictor variables (e.g., logistic
• search study.
• Central Tendency
A measure that describes the "typical" or average
characteristic; the three main measures of central
tendency are mean, median
• Codes
Values, typically numeric, that are assigned to
different levels of variables to facilitate analysis of
the variable. For example, codes such as strongly
disagree=1, disagree=2, agree=3, and strongly
agree=4 are often assigned.
• Cohort
• A group of people sharing a common
demographic experience who are observed
through time. For example, all the people
born in the same year constitute a birth
cohort. All the people married in the same
year constitute a marriage cohort.
• Confidentiality
The protection of research subjects from
being identified. A common standard in social
science research is that records or information
used for research should not allow
participants to be identified and that
researchers should not take any action that
would affect the individual to whom the
information pertains.
• Consistency
Answers to a set of questions are consistent if
they do not contain any logical contradictions.
• Constant
A value that stays the same for all the units of
an analysis. For instance, in a research study
that explores fathers' involvement in their
children's lives, gender would be constant, as
all subjects (units of analysis) are male.
• Content Validity
Content validity, like face validity, refers to
whether a given test or other measurement
tool (e.g., classroom observation protocol)
actually measures the construct that it claims
to measure. Content validity requires the use
of recognized experts to evaluate whether test
items or items in an observation protocol
actually assess the defined content.
• Control Group
In an experiment, the control group does not
receive the intervention or treatment under
investigation. This group may also be referred
to as the comparison group.
• Control Variable
A variable that is not of interest to the researcher, but
which interferes with the statistical analysis. In statistical
analyses, control variables are held constant or their
impact is removed to better analyze the relationship
between the outcome variable and other variables of
interest. For example, if one wanted to examine the
impact of education on political views, a researcher
would control income in the statistical analysis. This
removes the impact of income on political views from
the analysis.
• Controlled Experiment
A form of scientific investigation in which one variable,
termed the independent variable, is manipulated to
reveal the effect on another variable, termed the
dependent or responding variable, while all other
variables in the system are held fixed.
• Convenience Sampling
A sampling strategy that uses the most easily accessible
people (or objects) to participate in a study. This is not a
random sample, and the results cannot be generalized to
individuals who did not participate in the research.
• Correlation
The degree to which two variables are associated.
Variables are positively correlated if they both tend to
increase at the same time. For example, height and
weight are positively correlated because as height
increases weight also tends to increases. Variables are
negatively correlated if as one increases the other
decreases. For example, number of police officers in a
community and crime rates are negatively correlated
because as the number of police officers increases the
crime rate tends to decrease.
• Correlation Coefficient
A measure of the degree to which two
variables are related. A correlation coefficient
is always between -1 and +1. If the correlation
coefficient is between 0 and +1 then the
variables are positively correlated. If the
correlation coefficient is between 0 and -1
then the variables are negatively correlated.
• Cross-Sectional Data
Coverage reflects the extent to which all
elements on a sampling frame (list) are members
of the population to be sampled, and the extent
to which every element in that population
appears on the frame (list) once and only once.
For example, the extent to which a list of child
care providers includes (covers) all the providers
in a given location (state, community).
• Cross-Tabulation
A method to display the relationship between
two categorical variables. A table is created
with the values of one variable across the top
and the values of the second variable down
the side. The number of observations that
correspond to each cell of the table are
indicated in each of the table cells.
• Data
Information collected through surveys, interviews, or
observations. Statistics are produced from data, and data
must be processed to be of practical use.
• Data Analysis
The process by which data are organized to better
understand patterns of behavior within the target
population. Data analysis is an umbrella term that refers
to many particular forms of analysis such as content
analysis, cost-benefit analysis, network analysis, path
analysis, regression analysis, etc.
• Data Collection
The observation, measurement, and recording of
information in a research study.
• Data Imputation
A method used to fill in missing values (due to
nonresponse) in surveys. The method is based on careful
analysis of patterns of missing data. Types of data
imputation include mean imputation, multiple
imputation, hot deck and cold deck imputation. Data
imputation is done to allow for statistical analysis of
surveys that were only partially completed.
• Dependent Variable
The outcome variable. A dependent variable is something that
depends on other factors. Researchers often try to find out what
causes changes in the dependent variable. For example, in a
study of factors associated with children's scores on standardized
tests, children's scores would be the dependent variable.
• Descriptive Statistics
Basic statistics used to describe and summarize data. Descriptive
statistics generally include measures of the average values of
variables (mean, median, and mode) and measures of the
dispersion of variables (variance, standard deviation, or range).
• Direct Effect
The effect of one variable on another variable,
without any intervening variables.
• Direct Observation
A method of gathering data primarily through close
visual inspection of a natural setting. Direct
observation does not involve actively engaging
members of a setting in conversations or interviews.
Rather, the direct observer strives to be unobtrusive
and detached from the setting.
• Dispersion
In statistics, dispersion refers to the spread of
a variable's values. Techniques that are used
to describe dispersion include range, variance,
standard deviation, and skew.
• Distribution
The frequency with which values of a variable occur in a sample or a
population. To graph a distribution, first the values of the variables
are listed across the bottom of the graph. The number of times the
value occurs are listed up the side of the graph. A bar is drawn that
corresponds to how many times each value occurred in the data. For
example, a graph of the distribution of women's heights from a
random sample of the population would be shaped like a bell. Most
women's height are around 5'4" This value would occur most
frequently, so it would have the highest bar. Heights that are close
to 5'4", such as 5'3" and 5'5" would have slightly shorter bars. More
extreme heights, such as 4'7" and 6'1" would have very short bars.
• Error
The difference between the actual observed
data value and the predicted or estimated
data value. Predicted or estimated data values
are calculated in statistical analyses, such as
regression analysis.
• Ethnography
Literally meaning "folk-" or "people-" "writing,"
ethnography is a field method focused on recording the
details of social life occurring in a society. A primary
objective is to gain a rich understanding of a setting and
of the members within a society. Ethnographers seek to
learn the language, thoughts, and practices of a society
by participating in the rituals and observing the everyday
routines of the community. Ethnography is primarily
based upon participant observation, direct observation,
and in-depth interviewing.
• Focus Group
An interview conducted with a small group of
people, all at one time, to explore ideas on a
particular topic. The goal of a focus group is to
uncover additional information through
participants' exchange of ideas.
• Forecasting
The prediction of the size of a future quantity
(e.g., unemployment rate next year).
• Frequency Distribution
The frequency with which values of a variable occur in a sample or a
population. To graph a distribution, first the values of the variables
are listed across the bottom of the graph. The number of times the
value occurs are listed up the side of the graph. A bar is drawn that
corresponds to how many times each value occurred in the data. For
example, a graph of the distribution of women's heights from a
random sample of the population would be shaped like a bell. Most
women's height are around 5'4" This value would occur most
frequently, so it would have the highest bar. Heights that are close
to 5'4", such as 5'3" and 5'5" would have slightly shorter bars. More
extreme heights, such as 4'7" and 6'1" would have very short bars.
• Generalizability
The extent to which conclusions from analysis
of data from a sample can be applied to the
population as a whole.
• Hypothesis
A statement that predicts the relationship between the
independent (causal) and dependent (outcome) variables.
• Hypothesis Testing
Statistical tests to determine whether a hypothesis is
accepted or rejected. In hypothesis testing, two hypotheses
are used: the null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis.
The alternative hypothesis is the hypothesis of interest; it
generally states that there is a relationship between two
variables. The null hypothesis states the opposite, that there
is no relationship between two variables.
• Imputed Response
A missing survey response that is filled in by the data analyst.
The method to fill in the missing response is based on careful
analysis of patterns of missing data. Imputation is done to allow
for statistical analysis of surveys that were only partially
completed.
• In-depth Interviewing
A research method in which face-to-face interviews with
respondents are conducted using open-ended questions to
explore topics in great depth. Questions are often customized
for each interview, and topics are generally probed extensively
with follow-up questions.
• Independence
The lack of a relationship between two or more variables. For
example, annual snow fall and the Yankee's season record are
independent, but annual snow fall and coat sales are not
independent.
• Independent Variable
The variable that the researcher expects to be associated with an
outcome of interest. For example, if a researcher wants to examine
the relationship between parental education and children's
language development, parent education (years of schooling or
highest level of education completed) is the independent variable.
Sometimes this variable is referred to as the treatment variable or
the causal variable.
• Indicator
An observation or measure that is assumed to be
evidence of the attributes or properties of some
phenomenon. Indicators are monitored over time and
are used to assess progress toward the achievement of
intended outcomes, goals, and objectives. Child well-
being indicators include children's letter knowledge,
frequency of pro- and anti-social behaviors, being read
to on a regular basis by family members and attending
high quality early childhood program.
• Informed Consent
The agreement between concerned parties about the
data-gathering process and/or the disclosure, reporting,
and/or use of data, information, and/or results from a
research experiment
• Literature Review
A comprehensive survey of the research literature on a
topic. Generally the literature review is presented at the
beginning of a research paper and explains how the
researcher arrived at his or her research questions.
Plagiarism
• Word comes from a latin word Plagiarius
meaning kidnapper (of someones words or
ideas)
• Act of using or closely imitating the language
and thoughts of another without authorization
and representation of that authors work as
ones and failing to credit the original author
Forms of plagiarism
• Copying and pasting other peoples work as your own
• An act or instance of using or closely imitating the
language and thoughts of another author without
authorization and the representation of that author's
work as one's own, as by not crediting the original
author
• The act of appropriating literary the
composition of another author, or excerpts, ideas, or pass
ages and passing the material off as one's own
creation
• Turning in someone’s work as your own.
• Failing to put a quotation in quotation marks.
• Copying words or ideas from someone else without
giving credit.
• Giving incorrect information about the source of the
quotation.
• Changing words but copying the sentence structure of a
source without giving credit.
• Using a previous assignment or essay as a new
assignment.
• Random Sampling
A sampling technique in which individuals are selected
from a population at random. Each individual has a
chance of being chosen, and each individual is selected
entirely by chance.
• Random Selection
Random selection refers to the process of selecting
individuals ( schools, programs, classrooms) from the
population to participate in a study. In random selection,
each individual is chosen by chance and has a fixed and
known probability of selection into the study sample.
• Reliability
The degree to which an assessment or other
measurement tool produces stable and consistent
results. Reliability indicates the degree to which a
measure will provide the same result for the same
person, across similar groups, and irrespective of who
administers the assessment or collects the data. A
reliable measure will always give the same result on
different occasions, assuming that what is being
measured has not changed during the intervening
period.
• Research Question
A clear statement in the form of a question of the specific issue
that a researcher wishes to answer using data from one or
more sources. Examples include: Do children who attend
center-based early care and education programs have stronger
academic and social skills than children who are cared for in a
home-based child care setting? Does the Black-White
achievement gap narrow or widen as children move through
the elementary school grades?
• Respondent
The person who responds to a survey questionnaire and
provides information for analysis.
• Sample
A group that is selected from a larger group (the
population). By studying the sample the researcher tries to
draw valid conclusions about the population.
• Sample Size
The number of subjects in a study. Larger samples are
preferable to smaller samples, all else being equal.
• Sampling
The process of selecting a subgroup of a population (i.e.
sample) that will be used to represent the entire
population.
• Sampling Bias
Distortions that occur when some members of a
population are systematically excluded from the
sample selection process. For example, if interviews
are conducted over the phone, only individuals with
telephones will be in the sample. This could
produce bias if the researcher intends to draw
conclusions about the entire population, including
those with a phone and those without a phone.
• Sampling Design (Sample Design)
The part of the research plan that specifies the method of
selection and the number of individuals or organizations
(schools, programs) who will be selected and asked to
participate in the study. The sampling design (sample
design) specifies the target population, the frame or list
from which cases from that population will be selected, the
approach that will be used to select the sample members
(simple random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster
sampling, or combinations of these), the number of sample
units to be selected to achieve the study objectives.
• Sampling Distribution
The frequency with which data values appear in the sample. The sampling
distribution can be characterized by the mean and the variance of the sample.
• Sampling Error
This is the error that occurs because all members of the population are not
sampled and measured. The value of a statistic (e.g., mean or percentage) that
is calculated from different samples that are drawn from the same population
will not always be the same. For example, if several different samples of 5
people are drawn at random from the U.S. population, the average income of
the 5 people in those samples will differ. (In one sample, Bill Gates may have
been selected at random from the population, which would lead to a very high
mean income for that sample.) It is not incorrect to have sampling error, and in
fact statistical techniques take into account that sampling error will occur.
• Simple Random Sampling

The basic sampling technique where a group
of subjects (a sample) for study is selected
from a larger group (a population). Each
individual is chosen entirely by chance and
each member of the population has an equal
chance of being included in the sample.
• Snowball Sampling
A strategy used to gather a sample for a research study in
which study participants give the researcher referrals to other
individuals who fit the study criteria. Snowball samples
cannot be generalized to the population because they are not
selected randomly. Snowball samples are usually used to
investigate groups that have some unique, rare, or unusual
quality and groups where members know each other through
an organization or common experience. For example,
snowball samples might be used to identify parents who
homeschool their children and attend local support groups.
• Statistic
A measure of the characteristics of a sample
(e.g., the mean is a statistic that measures the
average of a sample). It gives an estimate of
the same value for the population from which
the sample was selected.
• Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis is the process of collecting,
examining, manipulating, summarizing and
interpreting quantitative or numerical data for the
purpose of identifying patterns, trends, and
relationships in the data. It can include the use of
descriptive statistics such as percentages, means,
variances and correlations and/or the use of
inferential statistics such as t-tests, chi-square tests,
regression, and analysis of variance (ANOVA).
• Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis can include the use of
descriptive statistics such as percentages,
means, variances and correlations and/or the
use of inferential statistics such as t-tests, chi-
square tests, regression, and analysis of
variance (ANOVA).
• Stratification
Grouping the study population into subgroups
by their homogenous characteristics before
sampling so as to improve the
representativeness of a sample.
• Subjects
Those who participate in research and from
whom data are collected.representativeness of
a sample.
• Target Population
The population to which the researcher would like
to generalize her or his results based on analysis of a
sample. The sample is selected from a target
population.
• Theory
General statement that describes a hypothesized
relationship between different phenomena or
characteristics. Theories should be specific enough
to be testable with a well-designed research study.
• Unstructured Interview
An interview in which the researcher asks open-ended
questions. The researcher aims to give respondents the latitude
to talk freely on a topic and to influence the direction of the
interview. There is no predetermined plan about the specific
information to be gathered from these types of interviews.
• Validity
The degree to which data and results are accurate reflections of
reality. Validity refers to the concepts that are investigated, the
people or objects that are studied; the methods by which data
are collected; and the findings that are produced.
• Variable
A measurable attribute or characteristics of a
person, group or object that varies within the
sample under investigation (e.g. age, weight,
IQ, child care type). In research, variables are
typically classified as dependent,
independent, intervening, moderating, or as
control variables
• Variance
A commonly used measure of dispersion for
variables. The variance is calculated by
squaring the standard deviation. The variance
is based on the square of the difference
between the values for each observation and
the mean value.
Research
Definition:
• Research is a systematic process of collecting
and analyzing information in order to increase
our understanding of the phenomena of
concern or interest.
• It is a careful search or inquiry into any branch
of knowledge
Definition of research
• A process of getting effective solutions to
problems through systemic collection, analysis
and interpretation of data
• To carry out a diligent inquiry or critical
examination of a given phenomenon
• Research is composed of two words „Re‟ and
„Search‟ which means to search again or to
search for new facts or modify any branch of
knowledge.
Purpose of research
• Main purpose is to discover new knowledge
• Describe/Explain a phenomena. Accurate
identification of an event can be through
description e.g. age height, change over time
• Enable prediction i.e. is the ability to estimate
phenomenon
• To enable control i.e. the ability to regulate
the phenomenon under study
Purpose of research
• To enable theory development which involves
formulating concepts, law policies
• To explore a phenomena
Nursing Research
• Definition
• An organized systematic data based critical
scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific
problem undertaken with the objective of
finding answers or solutions to problems
Nursing Research
• Definition
A scientific process that validates and requires
existing knowledge and generates new
knowledge which directly or indirectly
influences nursing practice
Goal of Nursing Research
• Improve Nursing care
• Improve patient care outcomes
• Improve quality of life
• Define and expand the scope of nursing
practice
Utilization of Nursing research findings
• To restore health
• To prevent illness
• To minimize the effects of acute and chronic
illness and disability
Importance of research in health
Provides
• Important information on disease trends and risk
factors
• New information on
Outcome of treatment measure impact
New treatment
Public health interventions
Prevent recurrence of disease
Pattern of care
• Health care costs and use
• In clinical trials efficacy and adverse effects of
medical interventions by controlling the variables
that could impact the results of a study
• Provide feedback from real world clinical
experience for a company and improve the use of
drugs, vaccines, medical devices, diagnostics e.g.
Food and Drug Administration(FDA) or approval
of drugs based on a series of clinical trials
• Helps in making decisions out of evidence based
practice
• One can evaluate the current practice and adopt
the best scientific evidence
• Reduce morbidity and mortality rates and improve
the quality of life of patients
• Helps in policy and program development
• Understanding the cultural perception of diseases
and health care in order to take appropriate action.
• An interdisciplinary approach in global health
care problems which are multi-faceted in
nature
• Uncovers best practices and eliminates
barriers to care
Types of research
• Basic
• Applied
• Action
• Evaluation
Basic research
• Data collected to enhance knowledge. The
main motivation is knowledge expansion. It is
a non-commercial research that doesn’t
facilitate in creating or inventing anything. For
example: an experiment to determine a
simple fact.
Applied research
• Seeks to solve practical/real life problems by
use of scientific methods
• Used to find solutions to every day problems
• E.g. finding a specific cure of a disease,
develop innovative technologies rather than
to acquire knowledge
Action Research
• Concerned with the production of results for
immediate application or utilization
• Improves practices and methods
• Generates technologies and innovations for
application to specific technological situations
• The emphasize is here and how
Evaluation Research
• Evaluation research, also referred to as
program evaluation, is the systematic
assessment of the value of resources and time
committed to a project, product, or specific
goal.
• The main objective of evaluation research is
to determine whether or not a process has
achieved a goal or yielded the desired results.
Evaluation Research
• Evaluation research is used by organizations in
many ways and is an integral part of the
product development process, especially in
the early phases of design and is continually
utilized until the product is finalized. It
involves the use of
quantitative and/or qualitative research
methods.
Correlational research
• Correlational research is a type of
non-experimental research method in which a
researcher measures two variables,
understands and assesses the statistical
relationship between them with no influence
from any extraneous variable.
Correlational research
• Correlational research seeks to establish a
relation/association between two or more
variables e.g. Listening to music lowers the
Blood Pressure
• There are two ways of conducting research
- Experimental e.g. A group listens to music
and another does not
- Survey done by asking people how they feel
Historical Research
• Purpose is to collect, verify, synthesize
evidence to establish facts that defend or
refute a hypothesis
• It uses primary, secondary and a lot of
qualitative sources e.g. official records, reports
etc.
• The data must be aunthetic
Historical Research
• Involves analysis of events that occurred in the
recent past
• It can show patterns that occurred in the past
or over time which helps us to see where we
came from and what solutions we have used in
the past
• Understanding this can add perspective on how
we examine current events and educational
practices
Steps in conducting a historical research
• Identify the research topic and formulate

research problem or question
• Collect data and review literature
• Evaluate materials
• Synthesize data
• Report preparation
Methods of research
• Descriptive Research
• Promotes accurate portrayal of characteristics
of a particular situation, individual or group
• Also known as statistical research
• Discover new meaning and describes what
exists
• Determines the frequency with which
something occurs and categorizes information
Methods of research
• Descriptive Research
• Explains conditions of the present by using many
subjects and questionnaires to fully describe a
phenomenon
• Deals with everything that can be studied which has
an impact on the lives of the people e.g. finding the
most frequent disease that affects children in a town.
The researcher will know what to do to prevent the
disease therefore enabling more people to live
healthy
Descriptive Research
• In simple words, descriptive research is all

about describing the phenomenon, observing
it, and drawing conclusions from it.
Approaches to research
Qualitative
• Focuses on obtaining data through open-
ended and conversational communication.
• This is a non-statistical method.
• Qualitative research is heavily dependent on
the experience of the researchers and the
questions used to probe the sample. Open-
ended questions are asked in a manner that
encourages answers that lead to another
question or group of questions. The purpose
of asking open-ended questions is to gather as
much information as possible from the
sample.
Qualitative research methods
• One-to-one interview
• Focus groups
• Ethnographic research
• Content/Text Analysis
• Case study research
• One-to-one Interview: This interview is conducted
with one participant at a given point in time. One-
to-one interviews need a researcher to prepare
questions in advance. The researcher asks only the
most important questions to the participant. This
type of interview lasts anywhere between 20
minutes to half an hour. During this time the
researcher collects as many meaningful answers as
possible from the participants to draw inferences.
• Focus Groups: Focus groups are small groups
comprising of around 6-10 participants who are
usually experts in the subject matter. A moderator is
assigned to a focus group who facilitates the
discussion amongst the group members. A
moderator’s experience in conducting the focus
group plays an important role. An experienced
moderator can probe the participants by asking the
correct questions that will help them collect a sizable
amount of information related to the research.
• Ethnographic Research: Ethnographic research is
an in-depth form of research where people are
observed in their natural environment without
This method is demanding due to the necessity
of a researcher entering a natural environment
of other people. Geographic locations can be a
constraint as well. Instead of conducting
interviews, a researcher experiences the normal
setting and daily life of a group of people.
• Text Analysis: Text analysis is a little different from
other qualitative methods as it is used to analyze
social constructs by decoding words through any
available form of documentation. The researcher
studies and understands the context in which the
documents are written and then tries to draw
meaningful inferences from it. Researchers today
follow activities on a social media platform to try
and understand patterns of thoughts.
• Case Study: Case study research is used to
study an organization or an entity. This
method is one of the most valuable options
for modern This type of research is used in
fields like the education sector, philosophical
studies, and psychological studies. This
method involves a deep dive into ongoing
research and collecting data.
• Record keeping: This method makes use of
the already existing reliable documents and
similar sources of information as the data
source. This data can be used in new research.
This is similar to going to a library. There one
can go over books and other reference
material to collect relevant data that can likely
be used in the research.
• Process of observation:
• Qualitative Observation is a process of research that uses
subjective methodologies to gather systematic information
or data. Since, the focus on qualitative observation is the
research process of using subjective methodologies to
gather information or data. Qualitative observation is
primarily used to equate quality differences.
• Qualitative observation deals with the 5 major sensory
organs and their functioning – sight, smell, touch, taste,
and hearing. This doesn’t involve measurements or
numbers but instead characteristics.
Quantitative
• Quantitative methods deal with numbers and
measurable forms. It uses a systematic way of
investigating events or data. It is used to
answer questions in terms of justifying
relationships with measurable variables to
either explain, predict, or control a
phenomenon.
Quantitative methods
• Survey Research — The ultimate goal of survey research
is to learn about a large population by deploying
a survey. Today, online surveys are popular as they are
convenient and can be sent in an email or made
available on the internet. In this method, a researcher
designs a survey with the most relevant survey
questions and distributes the survey. Once the
researcher receives responses, they summarize them to
tabulate meaningful findings and data.
Quantitative methods
• Correlational Research— Correlational
research examines the relationship between two or
more variables. Consider a researcher is studying a
correlation between cancer and married. Married
women have a negative correlation with cancer. In
this example, there are two variables: cancer and
married women. When we say negative correlation,
it means women who are married are less likely to
develop cancer. However, it doesn’t mean that
marriage directly avoids cancer.
Quantitative vs Qualitative Research
Quantitative vs Qualitative
Research
Theoretical framework
• A theoretical framework comprises the
theories expressed by experts in the field into
which you plan to research, which you draw
upon to provide framework for your data
analysis and interpretation of results.
• theoretical framework is a structure that
summarizes concepts and theories, which is
developed from previously tested and
published knowledge which one synthesizes to
help them have a theoretical background, or
basis for data analysis and interpretation of the
meaning contained in their research data. The
theoretical framework is the structure that can
hold or support a theory of a research study.
• The theoretical framework for your research
proposal or thesis is not a summary of your
own thoughts about your research. Rather, it
is a synthesis of the thoughts of people in your
field of research, as they relate to your
proposed research or thesis, as you
understand those theories, and how you will
use those theories to understand your data.
• Theoretical framework comprises what
leaders in your field of research say about
your research question, about the problem
you plan to investigate, and might even
include suggestions of how to solve that
problem, including how to interpret the
findings in your data.
• What those leaders say, helps you to develop
an informed, and specialized lens, through
which you examine your data, conduct the
data analysis, interpret the findings, discuss
them, and even make recommendations, and
conclusions.
• The main reason you should develop a theoretical
framework for your research is so as to have a scholarly
foundation for all your sense making of the meaning
contained in your data (Neuman, 1997). The theoretical
framework provides a structure for what to look for in
the data, for how you think of how what you see in the
data fits together, and helps you to discuss your findings
more clearly, in light of what existing theories say. It
helps you to make connections between the abstract
and concrete elements you observe in your data.
• For example, the theoretical framework helps you to
raise questions such as, what do leaders in this field
theorise about my research question? What existing
theoretical ideas can I use to investigate and to
understand my research problem? According to the
theories, what should I be looking for in the data to
answer my research question? Thus, the theoretical
framework helps you to substantiate your
argumentation. It helps you to justify what you say
about the findings and recommendations
• The theoretical framework leads into
the conceptual framework, which is a specific
exploration of an aspect of the theoretical
framework.
Conceptual framework
• Conceptual framework
A concept is an idea
A conceptual framework illustrates what you
expect to find through your research. It defines the
relevant variables for your study and maps out how
they might relate to each other.
You should construct a conceptual framework
before you begin collecting data. It is often
represented in a visual format.
When to create a conceptual framework
• If you want to investigate any kind of relationship
between variables, it’s a good idea to create a
conceptual framework.
• Research example
You want to know if students who study more hours
get higher exam scores. To investigate this question,
you can use methods such as an experiment
or survey to test the relationship between variables.
• Before you start collecting data, construct a
conceptual framework to show exactly which
variables you will measure and how you
expect them to relate to each other.
• The conceptual framework is developed based
on a literature review of existing studies on
the topic.
• Identifying your variables
• Variables are simply the characteristics or properties
that you want to study. The conceptual framework will
map the expected relationship between them.
• In our example, the two key variables are “hours of
study” and “exam score.”
• Independent and dependent variables
• If we want to test a cause-and-effect relationship, we
need to identify at least two variables: the independent
variable and the dependent variable.
• In our example:
• the expected cause, “hours of study,” is the independent
variable ( that is the predictor or explanatory variable).
• the expected effect, “exam score,” is the dependent
variable (aka the response or outcome variable).
• In other words, “exam score” depends on “hours of study.”
• Causal relationships often involve several independent
variables that affect the dependent variable. However, to
keep things simple, we’ll work with just one independent
variable, namely “hours of study.”
• The conceptual framework is used to arrive at
a hypothesis.
Selection of a Topic
• Influenced by researchers interest, traininig,
availability of resources, existing problem in
the society or community
• There should be a perceived difference or
descrepancy between what exists and the
expected
• Depends on the discipline
Research Process
• Selection of Research Problem (Topic)
• Problem statement
• Justification/Rationale
• Objectives
• Literature Review
• Formulating Hypothesis
• Research Methodology/Design
• Data collection
• Data Analysis
• Hypothesis Testing
• Interpretation and discussion
Research Process
• Conclusion
• Recommendations
• Report writing
• Conceptual Framework consists of two words;
‘conceptual’ which is the process of forming
concepts and ideas; and ‘framework’ which is the
structure that connects the concepts and basic
ideas. As suggested by Miles and Huberman (1994),
• a conceptual framework as a graphical or narrative
form of expression of the main concepts, factors or
variables studied and the presumed relationships
between them.
CHAPTER ONE
• INTRODUCTION
• 1.1 Background to the Study
• 1.2 Statement of the Problem
• 1.3 Objectives or Purpose of the Study
• 1.4 Research Questions and /or Hypotheses
• 1.5 Significance of the Study
• 1.6 Scope and Limitation of the Study
• 1.7 Basic Assumptions
• 1.8 Operational Definition of Terms
CHAPTER ONE
• Background information
• Your Introduction should indicate the root of
the problem being studied, its scope, and the
extent to which previous studies have
successfully investigated the problem, noting,
in particular, where gaps exist that
your study attempts to address
CHAPTER ONE
• Background information identifies and
describes the history and nature of a well-
defined research problem with reference to the
existing literature. The background information
should indicate the root of the problem being
studied, appropriate context of the problem in
relation to theory, research, and/or practice, its
scope, and the extent to which previous studies
have successfully investigated the problem.
CHAPTER ONE
• Noting, in particular, where gaps exist that
your study attempts to address. Background
information does not replace the literature
review section of a research paper; it is
intended to place the research problem in a
proper context.
CHAPTER ONE
• Background information expands upon the key
points stated in the beginning of your
introduction but is not intended to be the
main focus of the paper. It generally supports
the question, what did we know about this
topic before I did this study?
CHAPTER ONE
• Sufficient background information helps your
reader determine if you have a basic
understanding of the research problem being
investigated and promotes confidence in the
overall quality of your analysis and findings.
This information provides the reader with the
essential context needed to understand the
research problem and its significance before
moving on to the literature review.
CHAPTER ONE
• Providing background information in the introduction
of a research paper serves as a bridge that links the
reader to the topic of your study. Precisely how long
and in-depth this bridge should be is largely
dependent upon how much information you think the
reader will need to know in order to fully understand
the topic being discussed and to appreciate why the
issues you are investigating are important.
CHAPTER ONE
• The background study for a thesis includes a
review of the area being researched, current
information surrounding the issue, previous
studies on the issue, and relevant history on
the issue. Ideally, the study should effectively
set forth the history and background
information on your thesis problem globally,
regionaly and locally
CHAPTER ONE
• . The purpose of a background study is to help
you to prove the relevance of your thesis
question and to further develop your thesis.
CHAPTER ONE
• STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

This is where you tell the reader about the
research problem (also referred to a problem
statement ) which is a statement about an area
you are concerned about, a condition that you
feel should be addressed, a difficulty that you
want to eliminate, an issue or question that exists
in the literature you have read or something
troubling encountered in your practice.
CHAPTER ONE
• The aim is to provide an understanding on
why your research topic is important. You
could quote or cite published journal articles
to point out the importance, preferably recent
ones.
CHAPTER ONE
• Problem Statement
Clearly states the problem or research focus,
the population affected and how the study will
contribute to solving the problem. A well-
written problem statement begins with the big
picture of the issue (macro) and works to the
small, narrower, and more specific problem
(micro).
Problem Statement
• It clearly communicates the significance,

magnitude, and importance of the problem in
your area of study and transitions into the
Purpose of the Study
CHAPTER ONE
• The ‘problem statement’ is a gap between What
should be happening’ and ‘What is actually
happening’.
• Say for example your study is about ‘job satisfaction’
and there is a gap between what is happening and
what should happen. This could happen in any
organization such as the retail sector, in hospitals, in
schools, in colleges, in banks, in manufacturing
companies, in technology companies and so forth.
CHAPTER ONE
Rationale/Justification for conducting the study
• In this section, you explain
• Why is the research topic important/Relevance
• Why the problem matters to you.
• What is already known and responses to the issue or
problem
• Who is affected
• Severity of the problem
• You could refer to newspaper reports, research reports,
journal articles etc.
CHAPTER ONE
• Research objectives
Research objectives should be closely related
to the statement of the problem and
summarize what you hope will be achieved by
the study. For example, if the problem
identified is low utilization of antenatal care
services, the general objective of the study
could be to identify the reasons for this low
uptake, in order to find ways of improving it.
Research objectives
• Remember, every objective must start with

the word , "To." An easy way to remember the
characteristics of a good objective, is the
acronym, "SMART." It stands for "Specific,
Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-
Bound."
CHAPTER ONE
• Writing your research objectives clearly helps
to:
• Define the focus of your study
• Clearly identify variables to be measured
• Indicate the various steps to be involved
• Establish the limits of the study
• Avoid collection of any data that is not strictly
necessary.
CHAPTER ONE
• Objectives can be general or specific. The general

objective of your study states what you expect to
achieve in general terms.
• Specific objectives break down the general objective
into smaller, logically connected parts that
systematically address the various aspects of the
problem. Your specific objectives should specify
exactly what you will do in each phase of your study,
how, where, when and for what purpose.
CHAPTER ONE
• How should your objectives be stated?
• Your objectives should be stated using action
verbs that are specific enough to be measured,
for example: To assess, to determine, to
describe, to explain, etc. Avoid the use of
vague non-active verbs such as: to appreciate,
to understand, to believe, to study, etc.,
because it is difficult to evaluate whether they
have been achieved.
CHAPTER ONE
• OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
In this section, you make it clear to the reader,
what you planned and how you have
narrowed the scope of the study and tell what
the study is expected to achieve. Just a few
sentences would be sufficient.
CHAPTER ONE
• For example, The objective of this study is to
describe the leadership style that contributes
to job satisfaction among staff.
CHAPTER ONE
• A research study designed to determine the
factors contributing to the acceptability of
Comprehensive care services among people
living with HIV/AIDSin kebele X.
• General objective: To detrmine the knowledge
of people living with HIV/AIDS on
Comprehensive care services.
CHAPTER ONE
• Specific objectives:
• To assess the knowledge of people living with
HIV/AIDS Comprehensive Care Services
• To determine the attitude of people living
with HIV/AIDS towards Comprehensive Care
Services.
CHAPTER ONE
• RESEARCH QUESTIONS / HYPOTHESES
Now comes the task of further narrowing the scope of the study. The
‘Statement of the Problem’ that you wrote about earlier is still too
broad and needs to be narrowed in the form of ‘research questions’.
A Research Question is a question that focuses your study and
stipulates the interaction between variables. It could also be stated as
a statement. It should be narrow enough and researchable within the
time frame and available resources. This section narrows the focus of
the study and specifies the research questions to address the
problem statement. Based on the research questions, it describes the
variables or groups and their hypothesized relationship for a
quantitative study or the phenomena under investigation for a
qualitative study.
Research questions
• The research questions and hypotheses should be derived

from, and are directly aligned with, the problem and
purpose statements, research methods, and data analyses.
• Example of Research Questions:
• Which leadership style is associated with staff satisfaction?
• What is the difference in job satisfaction between women
and men staff?
• What is the difference in how more experienced and less
experienced staff perceive leadership style?
CHAPTER ONE
• Hypothesis
A hypothesis (plural hypotheses) is a prediction or proposed
explanation for the occurrence of a specified phenomenon. For
example, there is no difference in job satisfaction between male
and female workers. In other words, you are hypothesizing that
male and female staff are equally satisfied and equally
dissatisfied with their job. Some authors suggest that
hypothesis should essentially be adopted in experimental or
quasi-experimental research methods where the independent
variable can be manipulated during the study in order to create
an effect (i.e. change) on the dependent variable.
Hypothesis
• Null Hypothesis: There is no relationship

between height and weight.
• Alternative Hypothesis: There is a

relationship between height and weight.
Variables
• VARIABLE is a measurable characteristic that
varies. It may change from group to group,
person to person, or even within one person
over time.
Chapter one
• A variable is, as the name applies, something
that varies. Age, sex, export, income and
expenses, family size, country of birth, capital
expenditure, class grades, blood pressure
readings, preoperative anxiety levels, eye
color, and vehicle type are all examples of
variables because each of these properties
varies or differs from one individual to
another.
I
Importance of formulating objectives
• Keeps one focused to the study(narrowing down
to essentials
• Avoids collection of unnecessary data which may
not be understood
• Helps organize the study in clear defined parts
• Helps in the development of methodology and
helps in the collection, analysis, interpretation
and utilization of data
Classification of variables
• Dependent
Show the effect of manipulating or introducing
the independent variables. For example, if the
independent variable is the use or non-use of a
new language teaching procedure, then the
dependent variable might be students' scores on
a test of the content taught using that
procedure.
Classification variables
The variation in the dependent variable depends on
the variation in the independent
• Dependant variable is a variable in which the
researcher is interested and in contrary to the
independent variable, the dependent variable is not
in the control of the researcher, and he/she is not
able to manipulate it. In its definition, it could be
stated that it is a variable which is affected by the
independent variable, it changes is based on the
independent variable’s changes
Examples of dependent and independent variables
• Example 1: Investigating the effect of women’s
employment on family life satisfaction.
• Women’s employment is an independent and
family life satisfaction is a dependent variable.
• Example 2: The effect of the sun on plants’
growth
• The sun and plants’ growth are the independent
and dependent variables, respectively.
Independent Variables
Are those that the researcher has control over.
This "control" may involve manipulating existing
variables (e.g., modifying existing methods of
instruction) or introducing new variables (e.g.,
adopting a totally new method for some
sections of a class) in the research setting.
Variables
• The researcher expects that the independent

variable(s) will have some effect on (or
relationship with) the dependent variables.
• Independent Variables
• An Independent variable is a variable based on
which the dependent variable is predicted.
This variable is chosen, manipulated and
measured by the researcher aimed at figuring
out its relationship with other variables.
• The independent variable might have a positive
or negative effect on the dependent variable;
that is, any kind of change in the independent
variable might result in a change in the
dependent variable. In a non-experimental
research, the independent variable is not
manipulated, and intact groups are chosen
assuming that the independent variable has an
effect on the dependent variable
Examples:
• Example 1: “Various social classes have an effect on
knowledge improvement”. In this example, the various
social classes and knowledge improvement are
considered as the independent and dependent
variables, respectively.
• Example 2: “Organizational structure has an effect on
customers’ satisfaction”. In this example, the
organizational structure and customers’ satisfaction are
the independent and dependent variables, respectively.
Types of variables
• Intervening
Refer to abstract processes that are not directly
observable but that link the independent and
dependent variables. In language learning and
teaching, they are usually inside the subjects'
heads, including various language learning
processes which the researcher cannot observe.
Types of variables
• For example, if the use of a particular teaching
technique is the independent variable and
mastery of the objectives is the dependent
variable, then the language learning processes
used by the subjects are the intervening
variables.
Types of variables
Types of variables
• Control
Language learning and teaching are very
complex processes. It is not possible to consider
every variable in a single study. Therefore, the
variables that are not measured in a particular
study must be held constant,
neutralized/balanced, or eliminated, so they will
not have a biasing effect on the other variables.
Types of variables
• Variables that have been controlled in this way
are called control variables.
Types of variables
• Extraneous
Are those factors in the research environment which
may have an effect on the dependent variable(s) but
which are not controlled. Extraneous variables are
dangerous. They may damage a study's validity,
making it impossible to know whether the effects
were caused by the independent and moderator
variables or some extraneous factor. If they cannot be
controlled, extraneous variables must at least be taken
into consideration when interpreting results.
Types of variables
Discrete
A discrete variable, restricted to certain values,
usually (but not necessarily) consists of whole
numbers, such as the family size, number of
defective items in a box. They are often the
results of enumeration or counting.
Types of variables
• A continuous/categorical variable is one that may take
on an infinite number of intermediate values along a
specified interval. A continuous variable generally
results from measurement and can assume countless
values in the specified range. Examples are:
• The sugar level in the human body;
• Blood pressure reading;
• Temperature;
• Height or weight of the human body;
Types of variables
• suppressor
Variables of interest have a relationship within
themselves, but our data fail to establish any such
relationship. Some hidden factors may be
suppressing the true relationship between the
two original variables.
• Such a factor is referred to as a suppressor
variable because it suppresses the actual
relationship between the other two variables.
Types of variables
• The suppressor variable suppresses the relationship by
being positively correlated with one of the variables in
the relationship and negatively correlated with the other.
The true relationship between the two variables will
reappear when the suppressor variable is controlled for.
• Thus, for example, low age may pull education up but
income down. In contrast, a high age may pull income up
but education down, effectively canceling out the
relationship between education and income unless age is
controlled for
Types of variables
• Endogenous variable
A variable in a statistical model that's changed or determined
by its relationship with other variables within the model. In
other words, an endogenous variable is synonymous with a
dependent variable, meaning it correlates with other factors
within the system being studied. Therefore, its values may be
determined by other variables.
Endogenous variables are the opposite of exogenous
variables, which are independent variables or outside
forces. Exogenous variables can have an impact on
endogenous factors, however.
Examples of variables
• Income
In economic or statistical models that include income, it is considered to be
an endogenous variable. For example, changes in income are dependent
on variables such as changes in consumer expenditure or changes in
consumers’ buying power.

• Interest rate
In economic models with an interest rate, it is endogenous because the
interest rate can be dependent on various factors, such as changes in
the prime rate strengthening of the local currency, and fluctuations in the
supply and demand of money.

• . Agriculture
Besides the field of economics, endogenous variables can also be
found in other fields of study as well. Agricultural inputs are also
considered to be endogenous. For example, the amount of crop yields
is endogenous because it is dependent on many other variables, such
as the weather, soil fertility, water availability, pests, and diseases.

• . Education
The level and quality of education received by an individual is also an
endogenous variable. It is because an individual’s level of education
often relies on multiple factors, including income, geographic location,
and socioeconomic status.
Types of variables
• Exogenous variable
It is the exact opposite of an endogenous variable
because it is a variable that depends on external
factors outside of the model, so it is not impacted by
variables within the model. describes something
generated from outside a system. is a variable that is
not affected by other variables in the system. It is the
opposite of endogenous, which describes something
generated from within the system.
Types of variables
Exogenous variables, therefore, are variables that are not
caused by any other variables in a model of interest; in
other words, their value is not determined in the system
being studied.
The concept of exogeneity is used in many fields, such as
biology (an exogenous factor is a factor derived or
developed from outside the body); geography (an
exogenous process takes place outside the surface of the
earth, such as weathering, erosion, and sedimentation);
and economics (exogenous change is a change coming
from outside the economics model
• Example of an exogenous variable. Take a
simple causal system like
farming. Variables like weather, farmer skill,
pests, and availability of seed are
all exogenous to crop production.
Types of variables
• Antecedent
Helps to explain the apparent relationship or
part of a relationship between other variables
that are nominally in a cause and effect
relationship
Types of variables
• Confounding
In an experiment, the independent
variable typically has an effect on
your dependent variable. For example, if you are
researching whether lack of exercise leads to
weight gain, then lack of exercise is your
independent variable and weight gain is your
dependent variable.
Types of variables
Confounding variables are any other variable
that also has an effect on your dependent
variable. They are like extra independent
variables that are having a hidden effect on your
dependent variables. Confounding variables can
cause two major problems:
Increase variance
Introduce bias
Types of variables
• Confounding variables
Let’s say you test 200 volunteers (100 men
and 100 women). You find that lack of exercise
leads to weight gain. One problem with your
experiment is that is lacks any control
variables. For example, the use of placebos, or
random assignment to groups.
Types of variables
• So you really can’t say for sure whether lack of
exercise leads to weight gain. One
confounding variable is how much people eat.
It’s also possible that men eat more than
women; this could also make sex a
confounding variable.
Types of variables
• Confounding variables
Nothing was mentioned about initial weight,
occupation or age either. A poor study design
like this could lead to bias. For example, if all
of the women in the study were middle-aged,
and all of the men were aged 16, age would
have a direct effect on weight gain. That
makes age a confounding variable
Types of variables
CHAPTER ONE
• It identifies the phenomena you propose to
analyse
• It shows the relationships which you are
seeking to establish which will be reflected in
the Research Questions.
CHAPTER ONE
• The conceptual framework situates your study within
prior theory and research questions. For example,
– there are several theories explaining ‘democratic
leadership’ and
– one of your research questions could be ‘Do women leaders
with a democratic leadership style result in higher job
satisfaction?‘
• The conceptual framework provides clues on data
collection procedures. e.g. instrument to measure
leadership styles; instrument to measure job
satisfaction.
CHAPTER ONE
• SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
• After having stated the problem, the objectives
of the study and the research questions, you
should include a section on ‘significance’ of the
study in which you tell the reader the
contribution of your study. Focus should be on
the following:
• Why is your work important?
• What are the implications of your study?
CHAPTER ONE
• How does it link to other knowledge?
• How does it inform policy making?
• What new perspective does your study bring to the field?
• Who would you share your findings with when the study is
completed?
• Begin with a general contribution of your study and then
proceed towards its contribution to individuals such as
practioners (such as teachers, managers), parents,
administrators, policy planners and so forth. For example, the
study on ‘leadership style’ produced findings that are relevant
to managers, principals, government officials and staff.
CHAPTER ONE
• LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
• The ‘Limitations of the Study’ is the section in
which you tell the reader the shortcomings,
conditions or influences that you could not
control. You have to mention them because
they may influence the results of your study
CHAPTER ONE
• Some researchers are reluctant to write about
the limitations of their study because they feel
it weakens their study and points out the flaws
of your study. However, it should be pointed
out that most studies especially in the
behavioural and social sciences have
limitations and it is better to indicate upfront
to the reader.
CHAPTER ONE
• You stipulate the limitations but show why the
results or findings of your study are still
important or significant.
• Acknowledging your study’s limitations gives
you the opportunity to show that you have
critically thought about the research problem,
data collection methods, the underlying
theory, relevant literature and the findings.
CHAPTER ONE
• Definition of Terms or also referred to as
‘Operational Definition of Terms’ is a brief
section consisting of definition of key terms or
concepts used in the study. For example, the
term ‘socioeconomic status’ may have various
meanings, so it is important to clarify to the
reader the way you operationalized the term
as used in your study
CHAPTER ONE
• Unfamiliar or technical words may also require
definition. The following are some guidelines:
• Only include terms that may not be well
understood or open to different
interpretations. Each term should be in bold
(for emphasis) followed by a short description
(not in bold). Treat each definition as if you
were quoting from a dictionary.
CHAPTER ONE
• Limitations are things that the researcher has
no control over, such as bias. Delimitations are
things over which the researcher has control,
such as location of the study. Identify the
limitations and delimitations of the research
design. Discuss the potential generalizability of
the study findings based on these limitations.
For each limitation and/or delimitation listed,
make sure to provide an associated explanation.
CHAPTER ONE
• Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations This
section identifies the assumptions and
specifies the limitations, as well as the
delimitations, of the study. An assumption is a
self-evident truth. This section should list what
is assumed to be true about the information
gathered in the study. State the assumptions
being accepted for the study as
methodological, theoretical, or topic specific
CHAPTER ONE
For each assumption listed, you must also provide
an explanation. For example: The following
limitations/delimitations were present in this study:
1. Lack of funding limited the scope of this study.
Provide an explanation to support this limitation. 2.
The survey of high school students was delimited to
only rural schools in one county within Africa,
limiting the demographic sample. Provide an
explanation to support this delimitation.
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
• This Chapter introduces the reader to the

research literature related to the topic. The
critical part of writing Chapter Two is to
identify the most relevant and significant
research related to your topic rather than
conduct an exhaustive search. Basically, you
are informing the reader of the critical studies
that have been conducted related to this
topic.
• This provides the reader with the background

information that he or she needs to
understand the problem(s) related to your
topic. The literature review also provides the
justification for your study as you indicate the
gaps and weaknesses in the existing research.
• Chapter Two provides credibility to your study

as it shows you have done your “homework”
in reading the research for this topic, and your
study is “grounded” in the research. In other
words, your study/thesis did not simply
appear from thin air, instead it was developed
because there was a need to conduct the
study, and it will contribute to the body of
research related to this problem
• This chapter should summarize the literature
that is relevant to your research project, bringing
out where the gaps in the literature are, and how
your research helps to fill in one or more of these
gaps.
Literature review is an analytical summary of
the past work relevant to your topic.
• It brings the researcher and the reader up to
date on what others did relevant to the topic.
Literature Review
Purpose
• To familiarize yourself with the current state of
knowledge on your topic
• The main purpose of literature review is to
determine what has already been done
related to the research problem under study.
• To ensure that you’re not just repeating what
others have already done
Literature Review
• It pulls together integrates and summarizes
what is known in an area. A review analyzes
and synthesizes different results and this
helps to identify gaps in knowledge and
unresolved problems that your research can
address
• To provide an overview of the key findings and
debates on the topic
Literature Review
Detailed knowledge of what has been done
helps the researcher to:
• Avoid unnecessary duplication
• Form a framework within which the research
findings are to be interpreted
• Demonstrate the researchers familiarity with
the existing body of knowledge
Literature Review
• To develop your theoretical framework and
methodology through revealing what
strategies, procedures and measuring
instruments have been found useful in
investigating the problem. This helps in
avoiding mistakes made by other researchers
and benefit from their experiences and clarify
how to use certain procedures
Literature Review
• To make the researcher familiar with previous
studies and thus facilitates the interpretation
of the results of the study
• Writing the literature review shows your
reader how your work relates to existing
research and what new insights it will
contribute.
Literature Review
• Helps the researcher to limit the problem in
order to define it better
• Helps to determine new approaches and
stimulate new ideas
• Reveals approaches that have been futile
• Those planning further research can consider
suggestions and recommendations used by
other authors
Literature Review
Scope of the Literature Review
It is also important to determine the precise
scope of the literature review. For example,
• What exactly will you cover in your review?
• How comprehensive will it be?
• How long?
• About how many citations will you use?

Literature Review
• How detailed? Will it be a review of ALL
relevant material or will the scope be limited to
more recent material, e.g. the last five years.
• Are you focusing on methodological
approaches, on theoretical issues, trends on
qualitative or quantitative research?
• Will you broaden your search to seek literature
in related disciplines?
Literature Review
• Compares and contrasts
• Identifies areas of consensus and dissent
• Reveals gaps or oversights
• Indicates areas needing further research
• Discusses major debates in the field
Examines methodological or theoretical
strengths and weaknesses
Literature Review
• Step 1: Find the relevant literature
Naturally, the first step in the literature review
journey is to look for the existing research
that’s relevant to your topic. Essentially, you
need to be looking for any existing literature
that potentially helps you answer your
research question (or develop it, if that’s not
yet pinned down
Literature Review
• Step 1: Find the relevant literature
• Naturally, the first step in the literature review
journey is to identify the existing research
that’s relevant to your topic. While you
probably already have a decent base of this
from your research proposal. Essentially, you
need to be looking for any existing literature
that potentially helps you answer your
research question.
Literature Review
• Ways of searching for Literature
• Google’s academic search engine, Google Scholar,
is a great starting point as it provides a good high-
level view of the relevant journal articles for
whatever keyword you throw at it. Most valuably,
it tells you how many times each article has been
cited, which gives you an idea of how credible (or
at least, popular) it is. Some articles will be free
to access, while others will require an account.
Literature Review
• University/College Database Scrounging
Generally, institutions provide students with access to an
online library, which provides access to many (but not all)
of the major journals.
• So, if you find an article using Google Scholar that requires
paid access (which is quite likely), search for that article in
your institutions database – if it’s listed there, you’ll have
access. Note that, generally, the search engine capabilities
of these databases are and can be challenging, so make
sure you search for the exact article name, or you might
not find it.
Literature Review
• Journal Article Snowballing
• At the end of every academic journal article, you’ll
find a list of references. As with any academic
writing, these references are the building blocks of
the article, so if the article is relevant to your topic,
there’s a good chance a portion of the referenced
works will be too. Do a quick scan of the titles and
see what seems relevant, then search for the
relevant ones in your university’s/college database.
Literature Review
• Dissertation Scavenging
• You can leverage other students’ dissertations.
All you have to do is skim through literature
review chapters of existing dissertations related
to your topic and you can find potential
literature. Usually, your university/college will
provide you with access to previous students’
dissertations, but you can also find a much
larger selection in the following databases:
Literature Review
Databases
• ProQuest Dissertation & Theses Global is the
world's most comprehensive curated
collection of multi-disciplinary dissertations
and theses from around the world, offering
nearly 5 million citations and 2.6 million full-
text works from thousands of universities.
Literature Review
• Keep in mind that dissertations and theses are not
as academically sound as published, peer-reviewed
journal articles (because they’re written by
students, not professionals), so be sure to check
the credibility of any sources you find using this
method. You can do this by assessing the citation
count of any given article in Google Scholar. If you
need help with assessing the credibility of any
article, or with finding relevant research in general,
Literature Review
• Log, catalogue and synthesize
• It is essential that you simultaneously start
organizing the information. There are three
aspects to this:
• Logging reference information
• Building an organized catalogue
• Distilling and synthesizing the information
• I’ll discuss each of these below:
Literature Review
• 2.1 – Log the reference information
• As you read each article, you should add it to
your reference management software. Most
importantly, make sure you load EVERY article
you read into your reference manager, even if
it doesn’t seem very relevant at the time.
Literature Review
• Build an organized catalogue
• In the beginning, you might feel confident that
you can remember who said what, where, and
what their main arguments were. Trust me,
you won’t. If you do a thorough review of the
relevant literature (as you must!), you’re going
to read many, many articles, and it’s
simply impossible to remember who said
what, when, and in what context.
Literature Review
• Also, without the bird’s eye view that a
catalogue provides, you’ll miss connections
between various articles, and have no view of
how the research developed over time. Simply
put, it’s essential to build your own catalogue
of the literature.
Literature Review
• Author, date, title – Start with three columns
containing this core information. This will make
it easy for you to search for titles with certain
words, order research by date, or group by
author.
• Categories or keywords – You can either create
multiple columns, one for each category/theme
and then tick the relevant categories, or you
can have one column with keywords.
Literature Review
• Key arguments/points – Use this column to
succinctly convey the essence of the article, the
key arguments and implications thereof for your
research.
• Context – Note the socioeconomic context in
which the research was undertaken. For
example: US-based, respondents aged 25-35,
lower- income, etc. This will be useful for
making an argument about gaps in the research.
Literature Review
• Methodology – Note which methodology was used
and why. Also note any issues you feel arise due to the
methodology. Again, you can use this to make an
argument about gaps in the research.
• Quotations – Note down any quoteworthy lines you
feel might be useful later.
• Notes – Make notes about anything not already
covered. For example, linkages to or disagreements
with other theories, questions raised but unanswered,
shortcomings or limitations, and so forth.
Literature Review
• Digest and synthesize
• Most importantly, as you work through the literature
and build your catalogue, you need to synthesize all
the information in your own mind – how does it all
fit together? Look for links between the various
articles and try to develop a bigger picture view of
the state of the research. Some important questions
to ask yourself are:
• What answers does the existing research provide to
my own research questions?
Literature Review
• Which points do the researchers agree (and
disagree) on?
• How has the research developed over time?
• Where do the gaps in the current research lie?
• To help you develop a big-picture view and
synthesize all the information, you might find mind
mapping software such as Free mind useful.
Alternatively, if you’re a fan of physical note-taking,
investing in a large whiteboard might work for you.
Literature Review
• Step 3: Outline and write it up!
• Once you’re satisfied that you have digested and distilled all the
relevant literature in your mind, it’s time to put pen to paper (or
rather, fingers to keyboard). There are two steps here – outlining
and writing:
• Draw up your outline
• Having spent so much time reading, it might be tempting to just
start writing up without a clear structure in mind. However, it’s
critically important to decide on your structure and develop a
detailed outline before you write anything. Your literature review
chapter needs to present a clear, logical and an easy to follow
narrative – and that requires some planning. Don’t try to wing it!
Literature Review
• Draw up an outline of your entire chapter in bullet
point format. Try to get as detailed as possible, so
that you know exactly what you’ll cover where,
how each section will connect to the next, and
how your entire argument will develop throughout
the chapter. Also, at this stage, it’s a good idea
to allocate word count limits for each section, so
that you can identify word count problems before
you’ve spent weeks or months writing!
Literature Review
Get writing
• With a detailed outline at your side, it’s time to start
writing up (finally!). To help with this, remember that the
objective of the first draft is not perfection – it’s simply
to get your thoughts out of your head and onto paper,
after which you can refine them. The structure might
change a little, the word count allocations might shift and
shuffle, you might add or remove a section – that’s all
okay. Don’t worry about all this on your first draft – just
get your thoughts down on paper.
Literature Review
• Refine your second draft and get a layman’s
perspective on it. Then tighten it up and
submit to your supervisor.
Steps in carrying out literature review
• Be familiar with where you get yor literature e.g library
• Step 1: Choose a topic to write about—focus on and
explore this topic.
• Choose a topic that you are familiar with and highly
interested in analyzing; a topic your intended readers and
researchers will find interesting and useful; and a topic that
is current, well-established in the field, and about which
there has been sufficient research conducted for a review.
This will help you find the “sweet spot” for what to focus on.
During this time make a list of key words or phrases to guide
your literature search then go to the source of literature
• Step 2: Research and collect all of the

scholarly information on the topic that might
be pertinent to your study.
• This includes scholarly articles, books,
conventions, conferences, dissertations and
theses—these and any other academic work
related to your area of study is called “the
literature.”
• Step 3: Analyze,organize and report the

network of information that extends or
responds to the major works in your area in
an orderly manner in such a way from the
general to the more specific; select the
material that is most useful. select the
material that will be most useful to you
review.If the references have difference in
opinion you should indicate
• Step 4: Describe and summarize each article—provide the
essential information of the article that pertains to your study.
• Determine 2-3 important concepts (depending on the length of
your article) that are discussed in the literature; take notes
about all of the important aspects of this study relevant to your
topic being reviewed.
• For example, in a given study, perhaps some of the main
concepts are X, Y, and Z. Note these concepts and then write a
brief summary about how the article incorporates them. In
reviews that introduce a study, these can be relatively short. In
stand-alone reviews, there may be significantly more texts and
more concepts.
• Step 5: Demonstrate how these concepts in the
literature relate to what you discovered in your study or
how the literature connects the concepts or topics being
discussed.
• In a literature review intro for an article, this information
might include a summary of the results or methods of
previous studies that correspond and/or confirm to those
sections in your own study. For a stand-alone literature
review, this may mean highlighting the concepts in each
article and showing how they strengthen a hypothesis or
show a pattern.
• Discuss unaddressed issues in previous

studies. These studies that are missing
something you address are important to
include in your literature review. In addition,
those works whose theories and conclusions
directly support your findings will be valuable
to review here.
• Step 6: Identify relationships in the literature and develop and
connect your own ideas to them—this is essentially the same
as step 5, but focused on the connections between the
literature and the current study or guiding concepts or
arguments of the paper, not only on the connections between
the works themselves.
• Your hypothesis, argument, or guiding concept is the “golden
thread” that will ultimately tie the works together and provide
readers the importance they wouldn’t have had outside of your
literature review. Find out where to put the research question
hypothesis, or statement of purpose in a research paper.
• Your review will not only cover publications on

your topics, but will include your own ideas
and contributions. By following these steps
you will be telling the specific story that sets
the background and shows the significance of
your research and you can turn a network of
related works into a focused review of the
literature.
• In addition to these guidelines, authors can

also learn which style guidelines to use (APA,
AMA, MLA,Chicago etc.) and what is important
to include in a literature review by reading as
many of them as possible and by checking out
the journals’ Guide for Authors. The more
reviews one reads in the context of an article,
the better one understands the specific
demands for literature in a given study.
• Finally, after you have finished drafting your

literature review, be sure to receive
proofreading and language editing for your
academic work. A competent proofread who
understands academic writing conventions
and the specific style guides used by academic
journals will ensure that your paper is ready
for publication in your target journal.
Literature search
• A literature search is a considered and organised
search to find key literature on a topic. To
complete a thorough literature search you should:
• define what you are searching for
• decide where to search
• develop a search strategy
• refine your search strategy
• save your search for future use.
Literature search
• You should form a search question before you begin. Reframing
your research project into a defined and searchable question will
make your literature search more specific and your results more
relevant.
• Decide the topic of your search
• You should start by deciding the topic of your search. This means
identifying the broad topic, refining it to establish which particular
aspect of the topic interests you, and reframing that topic as a
question.
• Identify the main concepts in your question
• You should then find keywords and phrases to express the
different concepts. For example, the concept “eating disorders”
Literature search
• Subject-specific databases are the most effective way to
search for journal articles on a topic. However, you can also
search the Library for common information sources, such
as government documents, grey literature, patents and
statistics.
• Choose a database
• Find the most appropriate databases for your subject
• Databases help you to find a broad range of evidence,
including peer-reviewed academic articles from all over the
world, from many different publishers, and over a long
time period.
Literature search
• Databases such as Scopus and Web of Science
hold expansive records of research literature,
including conference proceedings, letters and
grey literature.
• Many databases have links to full-text articles
where the Library has a subscription.
Literature search
• Other information sources
• Go to your subject-specific page to see the most
appropriate information sources listed for your subject
area. You may need to explore more than one subject
page if your topic is multi-disciplinary.
• We've also compiled some guidance on how to find
common information sources.
• You may find it useful to make a list of which information
sources you want to search to find information for your
research; a search activity template can help you do this.
Literature search
• A search strategy is an organized structure of key terms used to
search a database. The search strategy combines the key concepts of
your search question in order to retrieve accurate results.
• Your search strategy will account for all:
• possible search terms
• keywords and phrases
• truncated and wildcard variations of search terms
• subject headings (where applicable)
• Each database works differently so you need to adapt your search
strategy for each database. You may wish to develop a number of
separate search strategies if your research covers several different
areas.
Literature search
• It is a good idea to test your strategies and
refine them after you have reviewed the
search results.
Literature search
Grey Literature
• Refers to tertiary or secondary sources that
are either unpublished or has been published
in non-commercial form.
• Information produced outside of traditional
publishing and distribution channels.
Literature search
Examples of grey literature include:
• Government reports/Documents
• Policy statements and issues papers
• Conference proceedings
• Pre-prints and post-prints of articles
Literature search
Examples of grey literature include:
• Theses and dissertations
• Research reports
• Geological and geophysical surveys
• Maps
• Newsletters and bulletins
• Fact sheets.
Literature search
• Refine your research
• Searches can often produce large numbers of results. This may be an
appropriate number for a systematic review where you need to ensure
your search is very comprehensive. However, if your search retrieves
several irrelevant results, techniques can be used make your search
more effective.
• Find ways to restrict and widen your search
• If your search only finds a few references, or most of the references are
irrelevant to your research topic, consider the following:
• Check your spelling: databases will not usually auto-correct, so they will
only find what you type.
• Use a broader search question.
• Do you need to search more databases?
Literature search
• Could you add more search terms? Look for
variations in spelling and alternative words.
• Discuss your topic with your supervisor.
• If you have too many results, you may have to
focus your search and make it more specific.
Literature search
• Save copies of the useful records you find and where
possible save a copy of your search strategy. This will
ensure that you don’t have to repeat work.
• Save the articles you find
• Always save or print the useful article records you
find. Most databases give you a few options, such as:
• save
• print
• email
Literature search
• Generally you will not be able to download the full text of the
documents directly from the database. In many databases you will
have to follow the "full text" links. If the Library has a subscription, you
will be able to download the article.
• Save your search strategy
• The database may have a free personal account feature that allows
you to save a copy of your search strategy. Saving your strategy means
your search can be re-run without you having to re-enter details.
• Stay up-to-date with database alerts
• Many databases will have auto-alerts so that you can keep up to date
with any new research.
• Find out more about current awareness services.
Literature search
• Steps in the process of literature review

• Define your topic. The first step is defining your task -- choosing a topic
and noting the questions you have about the topic. This will provide a
focus that guides your strategy in step II and will provide potential
words to use in searches in step III.
• 2. Develop a strategy. Strategy involves figuring out where the
information might be and identifying the best tools for finding those
types of sources. The strategy section identifies specific types of
research databases to use for specific purposes.
• 3. Locate the information. In this step, you implement the strategy
developed in II in order to actually locate specific articles, books,
technical reports, etc.
Literature search
• 4. Use and Evaluate the information. Having located relevant and
useful material, in step IV you read and analyze the items to
determine whether they have value for your project and credibility as
sources.
• 5. Synthesize. In step V, you will make sense of what you've learned
and demonstrate your knowledge. You will thoroughly understand,
organize and integrate the information --become knowledgeable-- so
that you are able to use your own words to support and explain your
research project and its relationship to existing research by others.
• 6. Evaluate your work. At every step along the way, you should
evaluate your work. However, this final step is a last check to make
sure your work is complete and of high quality.
Literature search
• Tips for writing a good literature review
• Start with a short and concise introduction, which
provides the reader with an outline of the literature
review. This introduction should include the topic
covered and the order of your arguments. In
addition, you can add a brief rationale for all this in
the introduction.
• Add a short summary of your arguments and the
evidence at the end of each section. You can also use
quotations wherever appropriate.
Literature review
• Tips for writing a good literature review
• Acknowledge various opinions even if they do not agree with your point
of view. Do not ignore opposing viewpoints – this can only make your
argument look weaker.
• Use an academic, formal style and language. Keep your writing concise at
all times, and avoid using personal language and colloquialisms.
• Be objective. You should always be respectful of other opinions. This
academic paper is not the spot to use emotive language or your strong
personal opinions.
• Avoid plagiarism at all costs. To achieve this, separate your sources from
the hypothesis. Use the literature to prove a point, but reference it
properly.
Literature search
• Literature Review Checklist
• These should help you write your literature review. If you still do not feel confident
enough, go through our checklist:
• 1. Select the sources
• When selecting the sources of your paper, check the following questions:
• Did you indicate the review's purpose?
• Did you exclude the unnecessary sources and include the relevant literature?
• Are your review's parameters reasonable?
• Did you use recent developments and sources in the review?
• Have you focused on secondary and primary sources?
• Is your bibliographic data finalized and complete?
• Is all the literature used relevant?
Literature search
• 2. Evaluate the literature
• Do not forget to be critical in this part – the best judge of your writing style is you. In
order to evaluate the literature used, follow this checklist:
• Did you organize the material according to the issues?
• Is the detail amount sufficient for the discussed issue?
• Did you organize the material logically?
• 3. Interpret the Review
• Finally, the interpretation part. This part comes when the entire section is finished and
you want to make some final touches. Here is what you should ask yourself:
• Did the methodological implications of the review reflect the design of the research?
• Has your current literature summary contributed to the understanding of the readers?
• There you have it – everything you need to know about writing a quality literature
review. Go through our list step by step and create the best dissertation literature
review there is!
Literature search
• Define key or new terminology
• At the beginning of your literature review it is a good
idea to include definitions of any new or key terms.
• Have a clear conceptual framework
• Identify the main concepts that you will be looking at
in your literature review. “A conceptual framework
explains, either graphically or in narrative form, the
main things to be studied – the key factors, constructs
or variables – and the presumed relationships among
them.”
Literature search
• Your conceptual framework might be based
around broad concepts or theories or it could
look at areas that are more specific.
Literature search
• Critique the sources used
• It is important that you use credible sources
throughout your literature review. You should also
consult a wide range of sources. This might include
academic papers, books, websites, Government
reports, conference presentations and more.
• Alongside reviewing what it said in the literature,
you should also pay reference to the source that is
used. Is it outdated? Is it from a reliable author?
Literature search
• Develop an analytical and critical argument
• Many students fall down because they provide a
descriptive account of the issue at hand in their literature
review. This is not correct.
• You need to produce an analytical and critical
argument. Talk about they way that different authors
might say different things. Maybe things have changed
over time. Maybe some data is more credible than
others. Maybe you look at some case-study examples with
have contradictory findings. Think critically throughout.
Literature search
• Acknowledge gaps in research
• It is likely that you have chosen your research
project topic based on the fact that there is
little existing research in the area. If there is a
gap in knowledge then you should address
this.
Literature search
• Keep it relevant
• As I explained in my post ‘How to structure a
research project’, all of the chapters need to
flow and to be integrated. One of the biggest
mistakes that you can make is to write the
literature review in isolation.
Literature search
• Right from the start, think about what your
expected research outcomes and findings are. In
order to be able to bring the literature and the
findings together in the discussion chapter there
needs to be some correlation between the
two. Therefore, the content of your literature
review should inform your data collection (survey
or interview script). This will enable you to collect
data that marries up with your literature.
Organization of literature review
• Introduction & Background. Be brief (just a couple of

paragraphs)
• Clearly identify the topic/thesis in very specific terms
• Explain why the topic is important (provide context &
“big picture”)
• Engage the reader’s attention Body of the Paper.
• When you cite sources cited refer to sub-topics for
which the article is relevant.
• Analyze and summarize experimental evidence
(describe the important results from recent primary
literature articles). Explain how those results shape
our current understanding of the topic. Mention
commonalities and distinctions in research methods,
especially if that helps to explain variations in study
results.
• Include EVERY source you have cited in your
paper
• Include ONLY those sources you have cited in
your paper (do not include those sources you
have read but did not cite in the text of your
paper).
In-Text Citation styles
• What is a citation?
• A citation is a reference to a source used in
your research. It is how you give credit to the
author for their creative and intellectual works
that you referenced as support for your
research.
• citations should include author’s name, date,
publisher information, journal information.
• Importance of a Citing your Sources
• Citations document for your readers where you
obtained your material, provide a means of
critiquing your study based on the sources you used,
and create an opportunity to obtain information
about prior studies of the research problem under
investigation. The act of citing sources is also your
best defense against allegations of plagiarism.
• Citing the works of others is important because:
• Other researcher's ideas can be used to reinforce your
arguments. In many cases, another researcher's arguments
can act as the primary context from which you can
emphasize the significance of your study and to provide
supporting evidence about how you addressed the problem.
• The ideas of other researchers can be used to explain
reasons for alternative approaches. If you disagree with a
researcher's ideas or you believe there is a gap in
understanding the research problem, your citations can
serve as sources from which to argue an alternative
viewpoint or the need to pursue a different course of action.
• Proper citation allows readers to locate the materials you
used. Citations to sources helps readers expand their
knowledge on a topic. One of the most effective strategies for
locating authoritative, relevant sources about a topic is to
review footnotes or references from known sources ["citation
tracking"].
• Citing other people's words and ideas demonstrates that you
have conducted a thorough review of the literature on your
topic and, therefore, you are reporting your research from an
informed and critically engaged perspective. The list of sources
used increases your credibility as the author of the work.
• Just as the ideas of other researchers can
bolster your arguments, they can also detract
from your credibility if their research is
challenged. Properly citing sources prevents
your reputation from being tarnished if the
facts or ideas of those cited are proven to be
inaccurate or off-base. It prevents readers from
concluding that you ignored or dismissed the
findings of others, even if they are disputed.
• Ideas are considered intellectual property and
there can be serious repercussions if you fail to cite
where you got an idea from. In academe and the
professional world, failure to cite other people's
intellectual property ruins careers and reputations
and can result in legal action. Citing sources as a
student in college will help you get in the habit of
acknowledging and properly citing the work of
others.

• NOTE: In any academic writing, you are
required to identify which ideas, facts,
thoughts, and concepts are yours and which
are derived from the research and work of
others. Whether you summarize, paraphrase,
or use direct quotes, if it's not your original
idea, the source must be acknowledged.
• What are citation styles?
• Citation styles are the formal way that citation
information is formatted. It dictates what information
is included, how it is ordered as well as punctuation
and other formatting. There are many different styles
and each mandate order of appearance of
information (such as publication date, title, and page
numbers following the author name etc), conventions
of punctuation, use of italics (and underlining for
emphasis) that are particular to their style.
• How do I choose a citation style?
• There are many different ways of citing
resources from your research. The citation
style sometimes depends on the academic
discipline involved and sometimes depends on
the publisher/ place of publishing.
Sources of Literature
• The term primary source is used broadly to
embody all sources that are original.
Primary sources provide first-hand
information that is closest to the object of
study. Primary sources vary by discipline.
• Examples of Primary sources
Direct observation, statistical records,
interviews, experimental methods of actual
practices, actual impact of practices or policies,
original research data/results in journals,
conference papers, pre-prints, or preliminary
reports ,dissertations, conference proceedings,
correspondence. Also called empirical research.
• A secondary source is a source that provides non-
original or secondhand data or information.
• Research summaries reported in textbooks,
magazines, and newspapers. They typically
provide global descriptions of results with few
details on the methodology, biographies, critical
studies of an author's work ,articles, systematic
reviews, meta-analysis, practice guidelines,
monographs on a specific subject
• Tertiary Literature
Tertiary literature consists of a collection of primary
and secondary sources such as textbooks,
encyclopedia articles, and guidebooks or handbooks,
newspapers. The purpose of tertiary literature is to
provide an overview of key research findings and an
introduction to principles and practices within the
discipline.
REFERENCES/BIBLIOGRAPHY
• A Bibliography is a list of the full details of all the sources

you cited in your paper. In the Chicago style the
bibliography starts on a separate page at the end of your
assignment paper and is titled Bibliography. The
Bibliography contains details of the sources used in
writing your paper and can include works not cited in
your paper that you consulted in your research. All
sources appearing in the Bibliography must be ordered
alphabetically by surname of the first author or title if no
author is identified. Works by the same author/s are
listed
• alphabetically by title. Bibliographies with only one author are

ordered chronologically. The name of the first author is inverted (i.e.
Margot Broadman to Broadman, Margot); subsequent author’s
names are given in the form in which they appear in the original
source publication. The bibliography should be double spaced and
hanging indents used for each entry. A hanging indent is where the
first line starts at the left margin and subsequent lines are indented
about 5 spaces or 1.27cm. There are no line spaces between
references. Italics is the preferred format for titles of books, journals
and videos. However, article and chapter titles are not italicised;
these are put in double quotation marks. Capitalisation within the
Chicago style requires all major words to be first letter upper case.
• Example of a bibliography: Bibliography Anderson,

Jonathan, and Millicent E. Poole. Assignment and Thesis
Writing. 4th ed. Milton, Qld.: John Wiley & Sons, 2001.
• Craven, Ian, ed. Australian Cinema in the 1990s. London:
Frank Cass, 2001. Este, J., C. Warren, L. Connor, M. Brown, R.
Pollard, and T. O’Connor. Life in the Clickstream: The Future
of Journalism. Media Entertainment and Arts Alliance, 2008.
http://www.alliance.org.au/documents/foj_report_final.pdf
. Ferres, Kay. “Idiot box: Television, Urban Myths and Ethical
Scenarios.” In Australian Cinema in the 1990s, edited by Ian
Craven, 175-88. London: Frank Cass, 2001.
• Literature Review.” Journal of Advanced

Nursing 60, no. 1 (2007): 1-9.
https://doi.org/10.1086/525508. Knowles,
Malcolm S. “Independent Study.” In Using
Learning Contracts, 73-122. San Francisco:
JosseyBass, 1986. Merriam-Webster’s
Collegiate Dictionary. 10th ed. Springfield, MA:
Merriam Webster, 1993.
• Mullan, John. How Novels Work. Oxford; OUP,

2006. Proquest Ebook Central. Sylwester,
Robert. The Adolescent Brain: Reaching for
Autonomy. Heatherton, Victoria: Hawker
Brownlow Education, 2008.
• Younger, Paula. “Using the Internet to Conduct
a Literature Search.” Nursing Standard 19, no.
6 (2004): 45-51
• Hansen, Anders, Simon Cottle, Ralph Negrine,

and Chris Newbold. Mass Communication
Research Methods. Basingstoke: Macmillan,
1998. Jackson, Debra, Angela Firtko, and
Michael Edenborough. “Personal Resilience as
a Strategy for Surviving and Thriving in the
Face of Workplace Adversity: A
• APA (American Psychological Association) is used

by Education, Psychology, and some Sciences
• ACS (American Chemical Society) is often used in
Chemistry and some of the physical sciences
• MLA (Modern Language Association) style is used
by the Humanities
• Chicago & Turabian (two styles very similar in
formatting) are generally used by Business,
History, and the Fine Arts
• APA CITATION
Developed by the American Psychological
Association, APA style is widely used, not only in
the social sciences and management but also in
the humanities and natural sciences.
• There are two parts to APA citation: in-text

references and the list of references at the For
three, four, or five authors, all names must be
mentioned the first time, but subsequent
references cite only the first name with et al.
• For six or more authors, the et al. form can be
used in in-text citations: Davidson, Woodbury,
Pelton, and Krishnan (1988) used grade of
membership analyses, a multivariate
technique, for studying depressive typologies .
. . Davidson et al. (1988) concluded that pure
Type III depression appeared to be unique ...
Source: (Katon & Roy-Byrne, 1991, p. 342).
• The in-text component of APA citation
includes two main elements: the author’s last
name and the year of publication (e.g., Ross,
1997). Add the page number whenever
quoting directly or paraphrasing a specific
section of the text (e.g., Ross, 1997, p. 17).
• If many sources address the same point, they can all be
included in a single citation; the list should be in
alphabetical order (by first author’s last name), with a
semi-colon to separate each source: Across a number of
studies (Boon & Draijer, 1993; Dell, 1998; Ellason et al.,
1996; Horevitz & Braun, 1984; Lauer et al., 1993; Ross et
al., 1990; Scroppo, Drob, Weinberger, & Eagle, 1998;
Tutkun et al., 1998; Yargic, Sar, Tutkun, & Alyanak, 1998),
the proportion of DID patients fulfilling diagnostic criteria
for BPD has ranged from 35% to 71%. Source: (Lilienfeld
et al., 1999, p. 511). See the
• Reference List The list of references on your paper’s last page is titled
―References‖ and should be arranged in alphabetical order. For other types of
sources beyond those listed below, check The Purdue Online Writing Lab
(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/) or the APA Publication Manual (6th ed.). Book:
Ross, C. A. (1997). Usually the title of the work appears in place of the author when
no author is identified. Avahan—The India AIDS initiative: The business of HIV
prevention at scale. (2008). Retrieved from Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
website: http://www.gatesfoundation.org/avahan/Documents/
Avahan_HIVPrevention.pdf Hegemony. (2011). In Merriam-Webster Online
Dictionary. Retrieved from http://www.merriamwebster.com/dictionary/hegemony
Technical and Research Reports: Federal Bureau of Investigation. (1991). Uniform
crime reports for the United States: 1990. Washington, DC: U.S. Government
Printing Office. Pew Commission on Children in Foster Care. (2004). Fostering the
future: Safety, permanence and well-being for children in foster care. Retrieved
from http://pewfostercare.org/research/docs/ FinalReport.pd
• Dissociative identity disorder: Diagnosis, clinical features, and treatment of multiple
personality. New York: Wiley. Journal Article: Citations to articles include the volume
number in italics; if the volume is divided into issues, the issue number appears in
parentheses but not italics. For articles accessed electronically (e.g., in databases),
include the digital object identifier (DOI) without a final period. If no DOI is available,
give the URL of the journal’s home page, also without the final period. Katon, W., &
Roy-Byrne, P. P. (1991). Mixed anxiety and depression. Journal of Abnormal
Psychology, 100(3), 337–345. http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/abn/index.aspx
Lilienfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J, Kirsch, I., Chaves, J. F., Sarbin, T. R., & Ganaway, G. K.
(1999). Dissociative identity disorder and the sociocognitive model: Recalling the
lessons of the past. Psychological Bulletin, 125(5), 507–523. doi: 10.1037/0033-
2909.125.5.507 Yoshikawa, H. (1994). Prevention as cumulative protection: Effects of
early family support and education on chronic delinquency and its risks.
Psychological Bulletin, 115(1), 28–54. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.115.1.28 Source with
No Given Author, including Dictionary: (see APA Publication Manual, 6 th ed., p. 176-
77)
• MLA style citations are commonly used by
students and academics in the humanities.
This guide follows the 8th (most recent)
edition of the MLA Handbook, published by
the Modern Language Association in 2016.
• To cite sources in MLA style, you need:
• In-text citations that give the author’s last
name and a page number.
• MLA style
• A list of Works Cited that gives full details of
every source.
• Make sure your paper also adheres to
MLA format: one-inch margins, double spacing,
and indented paragraphs, with an
MLA style heading on the first page.
• You can create citations automatically with our
free MLA Citation Generator.
Both MLA and APA use parenthetical citations
to cite sources in the text. However, they include
slightly different information.
An APA in-text citation includes the author’s last
name and the publication year. If
you’re quoting or paraphrasing a specific
passage, you also add a page number.
An MLA in-text citation includes the author’s
last name and a page number.
• When there are two authors, APA Style
separates their names with an ampersand (&),
while MLA uses “and.” For three or more in
both styles list the first authors followed by “et
al.”
• 1 author
• (Taylor, 2018, p. 23)
• (Taylor 23)
• 2 authors
• (Taylor & Kotler, 2018, p. 23)
• (Taylor and Kotler 23)
• 3+ authors
• (Taylor et al., 2018, p. 23)
• (Taylor et al. 23)
• APA reference list vs MLA Works Cited list
• In both APA and MLA style, you list full details of all
cited sources on a separate page at the end of your
paper. In APA this is usually called the reference list;
in MLA it is called the Works Cited.
• The formatting of source entries is different in each
style. Using the interactive tool, you can switch
between APA and MLA style citations for common
source types.
• MLA vs APA formatting
• The general formatting guidelines for APA and
MLA are similar. Both styles recommend:
• 12 pt Times New Roman font
• Double spacing
• 1-inch margins
• Chicago-style source citations come in two varieties: (1) notes and
bibliography and (2) author-date. If you already know which system to
use, follow one of the links above to see sample citations for a variety
of common sources. If you are unsure about which system to use, read
on.
• Notes and Bibliography or Author-Date?
• The notes and bibliography system is preferred by many working in the
humanities—including literature, history, and the arts. In this system,
sources are cited in numbered footnotes or endnotes. Each note
corresponds to a raised (superscript) number in the text. Sources are
also usually listed in a separate bibliography. The notes and
bibliography system can accommodate a wide variety of sources,
including unusual ones that don’t fit neatly into the author-date system.
• The author-date system is more common in the sciences
and social sciences. In this system, sources are briefly cited
in the text, usually in parentheses, by author’s last name
and year of publication. Each in-text citation matches up
with an entry in a reference list, where full bibliographic
information is provided.
• Aside from the use of numbered notes versus
parenthetical references in the text, the two systems share
a similar style. Follow the links at the top of this page to
see examples of some of the more common source types
cited in both systems.
• The following examples illustrate the notes and bibliography
system. Sample notes show full citations followed by
shortened citations for the same sources. Sample
bibliography entries
• Book
• Notes
• 1. Zadie Smith, Swing Time (New York: Penguin Press, 2016),
315–16.
• 2. Brian Grazer and Charles Fishman, A Curious Mind: The
Secret to a Bigger Life (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2015),
12.
• Shortened notes
• 3. Smith, Swing Time, 320.
• 4. Grazer and Fishman, Curious Mind, 37.
• Bibliography entries (in alphabetical order)
• Grazer, Brian, and Charles Fishman. A Curious Mind: The
Secret to a Bigger Life. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2015.
• Smith, Zadie. Swing Time. New York: Penguin Press, 2016.
• For many more examples, covering virtually every type of
book, see 14.100–163 in The Chicago Style.
• Chapter or other part of an edited book
• In a note, cite specific pages. In the bibliography,
include the page range for the chapter or part.
• Note
• 1. Henry David Thoreau, “Walking,” in The Making
of the American Essay, ed. John D’Agata
(Minneapolis: Graywolf Press, 2016), 177–78.
• Shortened note
• 2. Thoreau, “Walking,” 182.
• Journal article
• In a note, cite specific page numbers. In the
bibliography, include the page range for the whole
article. For articles consulted online, include a URL
or the name of the database. Many journal articles
list a DOI (Digital Object Identifier). A DOI forms a
permanent URL that begins https://doi.org/. This
URL is preferable to the URL that appears in your
browser’s address bar.
• Notes
• 1. Susan Satterfield, “Livy and the Pax Deum,” Classical Philology 111, no.
2 (April 2016): 170.
• 2. Shao-Hsun Keng, Chun-Hung Lin, and Peter F. Orazem, “Expanding
College Access in Taiwan, 1978–2014: Effects on Graduate Quality and
Income Inequality,” Journal of Human Capital 11, no. 1 (Spring 2017): 9–
10, https://doi.org/10.1086/690235.
• 3. Peter LaSalle, “Conundrum: A Story about Reading,” New England
Review 38, no. 1 (2017): 95, Project MUSE.
• Shortened notes
• 4. Satterfield, “Livy,” 172–73.
• 5. Keng, Lin, and Orazem, “Expanding College Access,” 23.
• 6. LaSalle, “Conundrum,” 101.
• Bibliography entries (in alphabetical order)
• Keng, Shao-Hsun, Chun-Hung Lin, and Peter F.
Orazem. “Expanding College Access in Taiwan,
1978–2014: Effects on Graduate Quality and
Income Inequality.” Journal of Human
Capital 11, no. 1 (Spring 2017): 1–34.
https://doi.org/10.1086/690235.
• LaSalle, Peter. “Conundrum: A Story about Reading.” New
England Review 38, no. 1 (2017): 95–109. Project MUSE.
• Satterfield, Susan. “Livy and the Pax Deum.” Classical
Philology 111, no. 2 (April 2016): 165–76.
• Journal articles often list many authors, especially in the
sciences. If there are four or more authors, list up to ten
in the bibliography; in a note, list only the first, followed
by et al. (“and others”). For more than ten authors (not
shown here), list the first seven in the bibliography,
followed by et al.
• News or magazine article
• Articles from newspapers or news sites, magazines, blogs,
and the like are cited similarly. Page numbers, if any, can be
cited in a note but are omitted from a bibliography entry. If
you consulted the article online, include a URL or the name of
the database.
• Notes
• 1. Rebecca Mead, “The Prophet of Dystopia,” New Yorker,
April 17, 2017, 43.
• 2. Farhad Manjoo, “Snap Makes a Bet on the Cultural
Supremacy of the Camera,” New York Times, March 8, 2017,
• Rush, E., McLennan, S., Obolonkin, V.,
Cooper, R., & Hamlin, M. (2015a). Beyond
the randomised controlled trial and BMI--
evaluation of effectiveness of through-school
nutrition and physical activity
programmes. Public Health Nutrition, 18(9),
1578–1581.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980014003322
• Interview
• Note
• 1. Kory Stamper, “From ‘F-Bomb’ to ‘Photobomb,’ How the Dictionary
Keeps Up with English,” interview by Terry Gross, Fresh Air, NPR, April 19,
2017, audio, 35:25, http://www.npr.org/2017/04/19/524618639/from-f-
bomb-to-photobomb-how-the-dictionary-keeps-up-with-english.
• Shortened note
• 2. Stamper, interview.
• Bibliography entry
• Stamper, Kory. “From ‘F-Bomb’ to ‘Photobomb,’ How the Dictionary Keeps
Up with English.” Interview by Terry Gross. Fresh Air, NPR, April 19, 2017.
Audio, 35:25. http://www.npr.org/2017/04/19/524618639/from-f-bomb-
to-photobomb-how-the-dictionary-keeps-up-with-english.
• Thesis or dissertation
• Note
• 1. Cynthia Lillian Rutz, “King Lear and Its Folktale
Analogues” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2013), 99–
100.
• Shortened note
• 2. Rutz, “King Lear,” 158.
• Rutz, Cynthia Lillian. “King Lear and Its Folktale
Analogues.” PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2013.
• Thesis or dissertation
• Note
• 1. Cynthia Lillian Rutz, “King Lear and Its Folktale
Analogues” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2013), 99–
100.
• Shortened note
• 2. Rutz, “King Lear,” 158.
• Rutz, Cynthia Lillian. “King Lear and Its Folktale
Analogues.” PhD diss., University of Chicago, 2013.
• Personal communication
• Personal communications, including email and
text messages and direct messages sent through
social media, are usually cited in the text or in a
note only; they are rarely included in a
bibliography.
• Note
• 1. Sam Gomez, Facebook message to author,
August 1, 2017.
• APA Formatting Basics
• All text should be double-spaced
• Use one-inch margins on all sides
• All paragraphs in the body are indented
• Make sure that the title is centered on the page with your name and
school/institution underneath
• Use 12-point font throughout
• All pages should be numbered in the upper right hand corner
• The manual recommends using one space after most punctuation
marks
• A shortened version of the title (“running head”) should be placed in
the upper left hand corner
• Easton, B. (2008). Does poverty affect health?
In K. Dew &
A. Matheson (Eds.), Understanding health
inequalities in Aotearoa New Zealand (pp. 97–
106). Dunedin, New
Zealand: Otago University Press.

RESEARCH

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RESEARCH

• Introduction to research; Definitions, purpose

• Simple Random Sampling

• Identify the research topic and formulate

• In simple words, descriptive research is all

• STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

• It clearly communicates the significance,

• Remember, every objective must start with

• Objectives can be general or specific. The general

• The research questions and hypotheses should be derived

• Null Hypothesis: There is no relationship

• Alternative Hypothesis: There is a

• The researcher expects that the independent

• This Chapter introduces the reader to the

• This provides the reader with the background

• Chapter Two provides credibility to your study

• Step 2: Research and collect all of the

• Step 3: Analyze,organize and report the

• Discuss unaddressed issues in previous

• Your review will not only cover publications on

• In addition to these guidelines, authors can

• Finally, after you have finished drafting your

• Steps in the process of literature review

• Introduction & Background. Be brief (just a couple of

• A Bibliography is a list of the full details of all the sources

• alphabetically by title. Bibliographies with only one author are

• Example of a bibliography: Bibliography Anderson,

• Literature Review.” Journal of Advanced

• Mullan, John. How Novels Work. Oxford; OUP,

• Hansen, Anders, Simon Cottle, Ralph Negrine,

• APA (American Psychological Association) is used

• There are two parts to APA citation: in-text

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