Chemical bonding

Home work:
Chang Raymond
GENERAL CHEMISTRY: THE
ESSENTIAL CONCEPTS,
SIXTH EDITION
Chapter 9
9.1, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9.
A Lewis dot symbol consists of the symbol of an element
and one dot for each valence electron in an atom of the
element.
 The octet rule:
In forming compounds, atoms tend to achieve
the electron configuration of a noble gas .

An octet is a set of eight

Gilbert Lewis’s suggested that a chemical

bond involves
electron sharing by atoms
or
electron transfer between atoms.
Compounds composed of cations and anions are called ionic
compounds.

Ionic compounds are usually composed of metal cations and

nonmetal anions.

An ionic bond is the electrostatic force that holds ions

together in an ionic compound.

Although they are composed of ions, ionic compounds are

electrically neutral.

The total positive charge of the cations equals the total

negative charge of the anions.
electron transfer between atoms
 Properties of Ionic Compounds

 Most ionic compounds are crystalline solids at

room temperature.

 The large attractive forces result in a very stable

structure.

 Ionic compounds generally have high melting

points.
 electron sharing by atoms
Covalent bond, a bond in which two electrons are
shared by two atoms

lone pairs
nonbonding electrons
 Covalent bonding results from an imbalance between the
attractions and repulsions of the nuclei and electrons
involved. Because of opposite charges, the nuclei and
electrons attract each other, but because of same charges
nuclei repel other nuclei and electrons repel other
electrons. However, the attractions between nuclei and
electrons is stronger then the repulsions. The balance of all
interactions tip in favor of holding the atoms together.
 A Lewis structure is a representation of covalent bonding
in which shared electron pairs are shown either as lines or
as pairs of dots between two atoms, and lone pairs are
shown as pairs of dots on individual atoms.
Different types of covalent bonds
 sigma bonds are
covalent
bonds formed by orbitals overlapping end-to-end,
with the electron density concentrated
between the nuclei of the bonding atoms.
 pi bond
a covalent bond
formed by side by side overlapping orbitals
with electron density concentrated above and
below the plane of the nuclei of the bonding
atoms.
 Overlap in sigma bonds is greater than that in pi bonds. It is
also interesting to note that because of this difference in
strength, a double bond is not twice as strong as a single bond
(which is sigma) because one of them will be a pi bond.
Pi bond is weaker than sigma bond because of the orientation
of the overlapped orbitals. Sigma bonds result from end by end
overlapping while pi bonds are outcome of side by side
overlapping. Pi bond is stable only in one orientation and in
case of any rotation bond breaks. That’s explains why pi bond
is weaker than sigma bond.
 
Bond length is defined as the distance between the nuclei of
two covalently bonded atoms in a molecule .

Covalent Ionic
molecule compound

Shorter
multiple bonds
are also more
stable than
single bonds
 A coordinate covalent bond

The shared pair of electrons came from one of the bonding atoms.
Electronegativity, the ability of an atom to attract toward
itself the electrons in a chemical bond.
 An ionic bond forms when the electronegativity
difference between the two bonding atoms is 2.0 (1,7) or
more.

A polar covalent bond forms when the electronegativity

difference between the atoms is in the range of 0.3–2.0.

If the electronegativity difference is below 0.3, the bond is

normally classified as a covalent bond, with little or no
polarity.
Metals are described as malleable (can be beaten into
sheets) and ductile (can be pulled out into wires).
This is because of the ability of the atoms to roll over
each other into new positions without breaking the
metallic bond.
 Writing Lewis Structures
The basic steps
Write the skeletal structure of the compound, using
chemical symbols and placing bonded atoms next to one
another.

In complex compounds, in general, the least

electronegative atom occupies the central position.
Hydrogen and fluorine usually occupy the terminal
(end) positions in the Lewis structure.

Cl Cl H O H
  Count the total number of valence electrons present.

 For polyatomic anions, add the number of negative charges to

that total.

 For polyatomic cations, we subtract the number of positive

charges from this total.

Cl Cl O C O H O H

7 + 7 = 14 e 6 + 4 + 6 = 16 e 1+ 6+ 1 = 8e
  Draw a single covalent bond between the central
atom and
each of the surrounding atoms.

H - O - H

 Complete the octets of the atoms bonded to the

central atom.

Electrons belonging to the central or surrounding atoms

must be shown as lone pairs if they are not involved
in bonding.
 if the central atom has fewer than eight electrons, try adding
double or triple bonds between the surrounding atoms and the
central atom, using lone pairs from the surrounding atoms to
complete the octet of the central atom.

FNF 5 + (3 X 7) = 26
F valence electrons

We draw a single covalent bond between N and each F, and

complete the octets. for the F atoms. We place the
remaining two electrons on N:

F N F
F
An atom’s formal charge is the electrical charge difference
between the valence electrons
in an isolated atom and the number of electrons
assigned to that atom in a Lewis structure.
Formal charge is the charge assigned to
individual atoms in a Lewis structure.

The sum of the formal charges on the individual atoms

equals the net charge on the
molecule or ion.
 Sometimes there is more than one
acceptable Lewis structure for a given
species

The most plausible Lewis structure can be

find by the following guidelines:

 Formolecules, a Lewis structure in which

there are no formal charges is preferable to
one in which formal charges are present.
 Lewis structures with large formal charges (+
2, + 3, and/or - 2, - 3, and so on) are less
plausible than those with small formal
charges.

 Among Lewis structures having similar

distributions of formal charges, the most
plausible structure is the one in which
negative formal charges are placed on the
more electronegative atoms.
A resonance structure, then, is one of two or more Lewis
structures for a single molecule that cannot be represented
accurately by only one Lewis structure.
 Resonance structures are two Lewis
structures having the same placement
of atoms
but a different arrangement of
electrons.
Keep in mind the following basic principles of resonance
theory

• Resonance structures are not real. An individual

resonance structure does not
accurately represent the structure of a molecule or ion.
Only the hybrid does.

• resonance structures differ only in the arrangement of

electrons.
 Two resonance structures differ in the
position of multiple bonds and non-bonded
electrons. The
placement of atoms and single bonds always
stays the same.

A “better” resonance structure is one that has

more bonds and fewer charges.
 The resonance hybrid is the composite of all
possible resonance structures. In the resonance
hybrid,
the electron pairs drawn in different locations in
individual resonance structures are delocalized.

• The resonance hybrid is more stable than any

resonance structure because it delocalizes
electron density over a larger volume.
 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
The Incomplete Octet
Group 2A
Group 3A,
particularly boron and aluminum

Molecules whose total number of valence electrons

is an odd number.
 Exceptions to the Octet Rule

Odd-Electron Molecules

Molecules contain an odd number of electrons

 Exceptions to the Octet Rule
The Expanded Octet

A few atoms, especially phosphorus and sulfur, sometimes

expand the octet to include ten or twelve electrons.
 In drawing Lewis structures of compounds containing a
central atom from the third period and beyond, sometimes
we find that the octet rule is satisfied for all the atoms but
there are still valence electrons left to place.
In such cases, the extra electrons should be placed as
lone pairs on the central atom.

7 + 7x4 + e = 36
EASY WORKS