Meat Ingredients During

Processing
Chapter Four

1
 Introduction:
• Meat and Muscle
Meat is defined as the flesh of animals
used as food. In practice this definition is
restricted to a few dozen of the 3000
mammalian species. It is often widened to
include, as well as the musculature, organs
such as; liver, kidney, brain,….

2
 Conversion of Muscle to Meat
• The animal structure we are interested in is
made of muscles.
• These muscles are the source of our meat.
• Muscle will be converted into meat through
glycolysis (consuming ATP) during the post-
mortem process; thus the major criteria of meat,
namely; “Rigor Mortis”
• Converting muscle to meat progress (post-
mortem) can be detected through measuring the
ATP-PH correlation. 3
PH as a Parameter of Muscle Conversion
Meat
• In a living animal the PH and ATP level is 7.2 and
around100%, respectively.
• When PH became 6.3, the ATP amount is around
87%.
• Just 80% of ATP left when PH measurement is 6.0
• ATP is continuing in depletion until the PH
reached to 5.6-5.7 to indicate that there is no
more than 10% of ATP has been left.

4
5
6
 Meat Manufacturing
• Meat can be manufactured into many types of
products;
– Refrigerated primal cuts, and comminuted
– Frozen primal cuts, and comminuted
– Reformed products
– Emulsified products
• Regardless meat products, there are two
major ingredients:
– Raw materials
– Non meat ingredients 7
 Raw Materials
Beef:
• rounds
• corned beef, Pastrami, roast beef
• trimmings - higher quality cuts, sausage & ground
beef
• advanced meat recovery tissue
• soft separated
• partially defatted tissue

8
Poultry:
• Whole breasts (white meat) - uncured roasts
• Thigh meat (dark meat) - cured Turkey
• Mechanically separated poultry:
– lower cost, cooked sausage

9
10
11
12
 Storage of Meats
• fresh/unfrozen
• < 7 days @ 28 - 30F (<40F)
• preblended (cured)
• <72 hrs @ 36F
• frozen
• 0-20F & barrier films
• Frozen How, When, & Why?

13
 Frozen Meat Quality:
• Storage conditions (#1)
• Freezing method
• slow = more purge & dark color

14
Slow Freezing Causes Extra-
Cellular Water to Freeze and
Cause Cellular Damage

15
 Frozen Storage Cont’d:
• Condition of meat when frozen
• rancidity & bacteria
• refreezing
• Length of storage
• gradual loss of WHC over time

16
Raw Material Parameters for Least-
Cost:
• Bind
• protein quantity & quality
• Color
• Moisture & Fat Contents
• Cost
• Availability

17
 Non-Meat Ingredients
Water
• product temperature control (cold/ice)
• extract proteins
• dissolve and disperse dry ingredients
• lower product costs
– compensates for cooking losses

18
 Salt
• brine strength for extracting proteins
• 7% ideal
• % salt / % salt + % water
• flavor & shelf life
• purity (rock salt vs. high purity evap. salt) not a
factor in cooking yields of injected hams.

19
 Relationship Between Cooking Yield and
Salt Content
110

100
Cooking Loss, %

90
1.3% Salt

2.1% Salt
80 2.9% Salt

3.7% Salt

70
132 146 162 179
Cooked Temperature, degrees Fahrenheit 20
 Phosphates
• increase pH
• increase WHC
• antioxidant - chelates cations (Fe++, Ca++, etc.)
• Na+ and K+ salts - 0.5%
• soapy flavors & color problems

21
 Phosphate Types
• tetraNa+pyro - v. alkaline, but hard to dissolve
• Na+tripoly - alkaline
• Na+hexameta - neutral
• tripoly & hexameta- brines
• Na+acid pyro- cured color

22
23
24
 Sodium nitrite
• cured color and flavor
• pro- and antioxidant
• prevents botulism
• restricted to 120 ppm (According to PSI)
• reaction faster with acidic & reducing conditions,
& absence of air

25
 Left: Meat
chopped
without nitrite

Right: Meat
chopped with
nitrite
26
 Sodium Erythorbate
• cure accelerator, reducing agent
• sodium ascorbate has same activity and can be
labelled as “Vitamin C added.”
• required in bacon (550 ppm)
Curing (addition of 156 ppm sodium nitrite) forms
mononitrosylhemochrome, the cured meat pigment (slice on
the right), vs uncured pork (left slice).
Panelists could detect a color difference in cooked
turkey breast containing 0 and 2 ppm sodium nitrite,
respectively.
 Antioxidants
• butylated hydroxyanisole
• butylated hydroxytoluene
• tertiary butyl hydroquinone (TBHQ)
• propyl gallate, malic acid
• 0.01% fat - fresh sausage
• 0.03% fat - dry sausage
 Antioxidants
• phosphates
• nitrite
• cloves, cinnamon, sage, allspice, nutmeg,
mace, rosemary
 Sweeteners
• Sucrose (cane or beet) - non-browning, but will
caramelize.

• Dextrose – browns, often used for fermentations, 74%

as sweet as sucrose

• Corn syrup (70% solids) and CS Solids caramelizes, no

use level restriction, 35-60% as sweet as sucrose.
 Sweeteners

• Fructose – 173% sweeter than sucrose.

• Sorbitol - non-browning, improves
peelability, FS links, 60% as sweet as
sucrose, limited to 2%, not permitted with
CSS/CS
The browning effect of long term holding
of products on a roller grill (below).
 Binders & Extenders
• Starches
– native & modified
– potato - gel temp./cook temp.
– 3.5% limit (WHC)
• Carrageenans (Kappa)
– 1.5% in general
– 65 °C to dissolve
– sliceability
 Binders & Extenders
• Flours
– higher protein content
– lower WBC
– pasty flavor, if not fully cooked

• Dried plums
– texture & juiciness enhancer, natural,
antimicrobial, sweetener, fat/meat
replacer
 Non-Meat Proteins
• Soy isolate
– 90% protein - 2% restriction
– salt is detrimental

• soy concentrate
– 70-90% protein
– flavor problems

• soy flour - TVP

– 50-70% protein

• chemical hazard - allergen

 Non-Meat Proteins
• Milk proteins
– Caseinate - binds fat & heat stable
– whey proteins - add with fat
– Ca-reduced NFDM - good binder, softens liver
flavor, half caseinate
 A Gel Made from Konjac Flour,
Isolated Soy Protein, Trisodium
Phosphates and Water
 Animal Proteins
• Plasma
– 2% in sausage (1.5% in whole muscle)
– flavor problems
– spray-dried – sensitive to heat & age
 Animal Proteins
• Mechanically Separated Poultry (MSP)
– good texture, with minimal meat
– doesn’t bind water well
– store frozen for < 4 months

• MSBeef
– bone particle size
 Acidulants
• Lactic acid & glucona delta lactone (GDL)
– simulates fermentation

• Sodium acid pyrophosphates

– cure accelerator
 Mold Inhibitors
• Propyl paraben
– 3.5% solution for soaking casings

• Potassium sorbate
– 10% solution for soaking casings

End of Chapter Four

 Freezing
Chapter Five

45
 Introduction:
• Freezing maintains meat quality for much
longer period of time than chilling.
• Freezing process must be rapid and it doesn’t
kill significant no. of M.Os. Meat of poor
microbial quality on freezing will stay poor on
thawing.

46
• Factors affect the total freezing time:
– Freezing rate.
– Frozen distance/time (i.e. 3cm/ 20 min).
• The freezing rate effect ice crystals location and
size.
• Types of freezing:
1.Fast freezing:-
– Location became wider outside & inside cells.
– Homogeneous distribution of ice crystals.
– Small ice crystals.

47
2. Low freezing:-
– Larg ice crystals.
– First outside meat cells then inside.
– Toughness cause dripping cause chewiness.

• Poor freezing quality problems:-

– drip on thawing.
– M.Os growth on thawing.
– Poor meat color.
– Poor water holding capacity.
– Toughness and chewiness.
48
• Packaging in Freezing:
It influences

meat quality shelf life

by
regulating
H2O migration
↓ evaporation losses.
↓ shrinkage. 49
• Notes:
To have the best out of packaging;
packages should be properly used and storage
temp. at correct set.

• Types of meat packaging:

1. Normal atmospheric package (e.g. tray and box).
2. Vacuumized package, to extend the shelf- life up
to 12weeks enable to distribute primal cuts.

50
• Fresh meat under normal package, the
dominant microflora will be.
– Pseudomonas 70-80%
– Achromobacter ≈10% aerobic
– Acintobactor ≈10%

• The shelf-life under normal packaging is only

one week.

51
• Fresh meat under vacuum packages will have
˂1% O2 and 20-40% CO2, which in turn will
affect the growth of the aerobic M.Os.
• Vacuum packaging used for fresh & processed
meat will have CO2.
• CO2 inhibit aerobic M.Os growth by providing
slow growth, while the facultative lactic acid
bacteria shows lower growth.

52
 Spoilage indicator:
•Slime formation and
•Off odors

107
No. of M.Os

105

103

0 3 7
Days Spoilage indicators are not seen

53
3. Modified atmospheric packaging:
• Only for retail cuts(pieces). Air is replaced by
gas(single or mixture).
• There are 3 common gases:
1)N2 2) O2 3) CO2

Place Flushing
Box Covering Packaged
meat with gas
formation the box product
pieces

54
 Functional MAP:
• To maintain the bright red color of meat.
• Inhibiting the microbial growth through the
presence of CO2 (10-20%).

• The gases used are:

– O2: 50-60
– CO2: 10-20
– N2: usually 30% as inert gas, and to avoid collapsing.

55
• High level of CO2 causes:
1.Effect meat color dark color.
2.Increase dripping; since CO2 will decrease pH,
through producing bicarobonate after
dissolving in meat juice.
3.The anerobic medium is favorite for poisoning
M.O. (e.g. Clostridium & Entero).

56
 Advantages of MAP:
1. Extension the shelf-life by 60-100% by:
– Slow microbial spoilage.
– Maintain attractive color of meat.
– Slow chemical spoilage.
– Reduce drip loss.
2. Allow hygienic handling of the product on
opening.
3. Improves visibility & appearance of meat.

57
 Meat storage:-
1. Chill storage:
The temp around -1.5 ◦C and the relative
humidity should be 85-90%. The storage time
depends on the original microbial quality of
meat.

2. Frozen storage:
Long preservation period for meat. Stores
designed to keep maintain the temp. of the
frozen meat.
58
Meat Expected shelf-life
at -18 ◦C
Beef 8 -12 Month

Veal 8 -10 Month

Lumb 4 -12 Month

Poultry 6 -8 Month

Pork 4 Month
59
Frozen storage:
1.All microbial activities stop @ -10 0C.
2.Chemical activities continue enzymaticaly.
3.Shelf-life determining factor would be fat
rancidity.
• The advantages of temp below the freezing
point in prolonging the useful storage life of
meat and in discouraging microbial & chemical
changes tend to be offset by exudation of fluid
“ drip” on thawing.

60
• The nutritional value will be very low since
protein, peptides, a.a., and vitamin will be among
the many constituent of drip fluid.
• In freezing, one of the most important problem
was freeze burn.

Freeze burning:
• The phenomenon involves the formation of a
condensed layer of muscular tissue near the
surface. This prevents access of water from
below thus enhancing surface desiccation.
61
• Freezer burn is maximum during storage when
the meat has been frozen rapidly under
condition where evaporation has been
prevented and conversely.
• Freezer burn usually happened when the pack is
been damaged or lost or even permeable pack.
• Freeze burn happened due to the evaporation of
moisture from meat surface and it can be:
1. Severe: Irreversible at it effects on eating quality
(tough meat, chewing meat, low juiciness).
2. Mild: Reversible on thawing, just happened on the
very surface area.
62
 Prevention of freeze burn:
1. Prevent drying out by effective packaging.
2. Prevent damage to packages.
3. Low air velocity is better on stores.

• Taint: Meat can absorb taints from odor, the

air surrounding or materials comes into
contact with meat.
• Fat is more likely to absorb taint than lean
meat.
63
 Causes of taint problems:
1. Perfume.
2. Paints.
3. Flooring resins.
4. Printing ink (labels).
5. Exhaust gases.
• Transportation of meat: Meat can be
transported are:
1. Carcasses whole or sides or quarter.
2. Primal cuts; which is usually packaged in
normal atmosphere or vacuum.
64
• The meat could be chilled or frozen.

Main Transportation problems:

• Temp fluctuation & poor loading & unloading
(-10 - -18 0C). Therefore transporter usually
equipped with temp data loger.

65
Chilling Ready-to-Eat Meat
Products
(Stablization)
 Benefits of Proper Cooling:
• reduce pathogen growth
• prevent toxin production with spore formers
• comply with FSIS Appendix B
• improve peelability, product appearance, yields.
 Cooling Methods:
• Air chilling
• holding coolers
• blast chillers
• Intensive chilling
• Liquid chilling
• water, brine, glycol
• Cryogenics
Holding Cooler
Air Blast Chiller
“Intensive” Air Chiller
Liquid Chiller
Liquid Brine Chiller
 Cooling Process
• Heat Transfer
• Conduction & Convection
• Thermal Properties
• Product Geometry
• Thermal Conductivity
• Surface to Core Temperature Difference
 Thermal Conductivity
• Controls rate of heat transfer
• (Btu / Hr-Ft ºF)
• Influenced by moisture content
• Water is a good conductor
• Protein and fat are not
 Thermal Conductivity of
Meat Products
Water Thermal
Content Conductivity, k
(%) (Btu/hr-ftoF)

Franks 60 0.31

Turkey 49 0.28

68 0.29
Heat Transfer Coefficients

• Heat transfer from surface

• Btu / hr-ft2 ºF
- Free convection (holding cooler) 5 - 25
- Forced convection (blast chiller) 10 - 200
- Free convection (immersion tank) 20 - 100
- Forced convection (brine shower) 50 - 10,000

“End of Chapter Five”

Common quality Problems in
manafactorying meats
Chapter Six

80
 Major Problems:
• None compliance with raw material description.
• Natural contamination & foreign bodies.
• Microbiological problem.
• Chemical problem.
• Poor packaging standard.
• Poor chilling condition.
• Poor freezing condition.
• Poor storage condition.
• Poor transportation condition.
81
First: None compliance with raw material description.

A.Visual lean content/ fat content (VL):

Subjective method for the assessment of lean

and fat content, expressed as %.
means
VL 80% 80% lean + 20% fat.

Chemical & physical methods are useful.

82
B. Problems caused by poor butchery:
– Meat with bone fragments.
– Meat with metal pieces.
– Meat with hocks, legs, shoulders.
– Meat with excessive connective tissue.

• Poor butchery practice are caused by:

– Insufficient training of butchers.
– Rushing the processing time.
– Poor supervision.
– Poor maintenances and wrong used equipment.

83
• The most common type of meat is the diced one.
However, this diced meats size could effect,
cooking, properties, texture, appearance.
• During dicing meat the following should be
controlled by:
A.Temperature: since;
– Very low temp. shatter the meat.

– Very high temp. squashed meat.

B. Knife should be sharpen.

84
C. Poor meat color: caused by:
cause
1 Temperature will increase M.O.
growth

cause
cause

rapid conversion of consumption of

myoglobin to O2 available
metmyoglobin,
as illustrated next page. 85
 + O2
Myoglobin Oxymyoglobin
Reddish - O2 Purple
Ox
ida
tio
+ NO Re n Oxidation
du
ctio
n

Oxidation
Nitrosomyoglobin Metmyoglobin
Reduction
Dark red Brown dark
Δ Δ

Oxidation
Nitrosomyochromagen Denaturated
Reduction

Metmyoglobin
Cooked red color Brown color 86
H2O2 will react with meat component like sulfur,
2
which will produce pigment providing green color.

3Dehydration: Meat will appear in dark color due to

water loss.

4 Poor transportation: Include lairage, loading.

5 Poor packaging: Good packaging depends on:

Temp., packaging properties, which include and
control: water, gas, and O2
87
Second: Natural Contaminations and foreign bodies:
The source would be: personal, Packaging,
processing, machinery, and animals.

• Natural Contaminations include:

– Feather cuts(poultry only). - Mammary glands
– Skin. - Connective tissues
– Bone and fragments.
– Hide.
– Lymph nodes.
– Hair
– Blood clots
– Fecal contamination 88
• Foreign bodies:
– Metal clips.
– Marker pens.
– Nail, hooks.
– Stones and dirt.
– Paper and card boards.

Third: Microbiological problems:

• In fresh meat:
– E.coli.
– Streptococuss.
– Salmonella.
89
• While in processed or cooked meat should not
present.
• Usually 106_107 M.O. means rejection of the batch.
• M.O. will effect the product shelf life and quality:

Safety (Pathogens)
Color & ordors.
Sensational properties.

90
Fourth: Chemical problems:
• Rancid fat: it can cause:
– Browning of product.
– Objectional odor & flavor.
– Shortening shelf life.
Q. How we can determine a product shelf life?
1.Identifying the products, for example: mortadella.
2.mortadella shelf life determined according to:

color - Sensory properties

A. Fat texture
flavor. - Forming f.f.a. 91
 APC E.Coli
B. M.O Salmonella
Pathogens Staphylococcus

C. Chemical Peroxide value.

TBA (thio barbituric acid).
Protein hydrolysis
produced
Which should
If high Volatile N2
be measured

Decrease the shelf-life

92
• Notice:
In general meat that contains susceptable
fat to rancidity should be vacuum packaged if
to be storage for long period.

93
• Mixed Meat Species:
Meat from different species of animals has been
partially or totally substituted for actual meat
species requested. Usually easy to detect different
types from each others, but veal and pork is not.

• Species Identification:
It is important to identify species in order to:
1.Help detect unfit meat and prevent it from being
sold for human consumption.
2.To prevent substitution of expensive meat with
cheap one. Good examples are: 94
• Veal with pork.
• Beef with horse.

In our days it is easy to identify meat

species by:
• Immunological methods.
• Histological methods.

95
Mechanically Deboned Meat (MDM):
After boning, a considerable amounts of meat
remains on bones, this meat could be separated
from bones by mechanical ways.
• Mechanical separator: This involves 2 steps:
– Mincing bone and meat.
– Separation of meat and bone from each other.

The most common problem in MDM is that the

variation in meat content.

96
Factors that may affect composition of MDM:
• Age of bones.
• Types of bones.
• Temp. of recovery.
• Feed rate of the machine.
• Amount of meat on bones.
• Types of machine used.

97
Important specification of MDM:
• Chemical:
• H2O content.
• Fat content.
• Ash
• Max bone content.
• Protein, pH, Peroxidase.
• Fat: free fatty acid(F.F.A).
• M.C (Microbial counts). End of Chapter Six

98
Emulsion
Chapter Seven

99
 Definition :

• An emulsion is an initimate mixture of two

immiscble liquids, one of them(the disperse
phase) being dispersed in the other( the
continuous phase) in the form of fine droplets,
meat emulsion are normally emulsion of oil in
water.
*Cont → water
*Disp → fat.
*Emulsifier → potein.
100
Over Chopping:-
• Every particle of fat measured principally as five
diameter.
During chopping the particle chopped to give
particle in one diameter, from this operation 125
unit are produced, from this the volume remains
constant but the surface area is increasing.
In increasing chopping, fat droplets become smaller
and smaller, but in some cases the protein in not
enough to coat all fat particles, then uncoated fat
renders from the mixture by heating.
101
Short meat:
This problem is related to:
1- An imbalance of myosin to collagene.
2- Low content of lean meat in the formula.
*Myosin and collagene covered the particle of fat.
*Upon heating collagene → gelatine, that give
uncoated fat particle.
*The fat collect together on the surface of sausage.

102
Heat break down:
• Fat separation may arise as a result of heating too
rapidly or at too high temp.
• During heating:
1- Fat particle expands.
2-Protein coating has tendency to shrink (outer protein).
3-Inner most protein expands.
• *Coagulated protein sac ruptured.
• *Entrapped fat separates or renders.

103
• Casing:
*Casing needed for most sausage.
*Casing give size and shape.
*Cases must be strong to hold the meat, but have
shrink and stretch characteristic.
The forces that affect casing are:
1- forces produced during stuffing.
2- forces of linking or closure.
Casing for sausage are obtained from two basic
material:
1- Cellulose.
2-Collagen. 104
That present in:
– Cloth
– Regenerated collagen.
– Animal.
– Cellulosic casing.

• Cellulose → plant source

• Collagen → animal source

105
Clips and thread closure:
*It used for closing sausage casing.
*The main source of thread is cotton.
*There is two measure type of thread (2 to 16 ply).
2 ply → frankfurter and small sausage.
12-16 ply→ bologna, salami, and other large sausage.

*Metal clips to close casing.

106
Additives:
• The processing, handling and storage of
sausage for today’s market has required the
use of additives to meet the demands of
modern consumers.
• The food chemical codex is a good reference
for the quality requirements of these items,
and in Palestine we use PSI.

107
Ice or water:-
*Ice or water are added to meat to provide
considerable functional qualities.
*Make a chilling for meat that make a lowering the
initial temp. and by lubricating the meat mass.
*Added water aid in dissolving sodium chloride and
curing salt to make more distribution in the mass.
* Water imparts fluidity to the emulsion in stuffing
and to give good shape in the cases.
* Texture and tenderness of the finished sausage are
markedly affected by the added water.
108
• Salt:-
*Salt for sausage must be of food-grade quality.
*There are three functions of NaCl:
1- It dissolves in water to form a brine which acts to
retard microbial growth.
2-It aids in solubilizing the myosin-type protein of
comminuted muscle for emulsifying the fat in
emulsion sausage.
3-It contributes the basic taste characteristics.

109
Curing salts:-
*The main concept of curing salts is for preservation.
*No more than 200 ppm sodium nitrite will be
present in the finished product.
*Small quantity of nitrite in combination with:
1- moistur level,
2-pH,
3-Added salt,
4- Final internal processing temp,
5-general bacterio static,
6-flavour.
110
Ascorbates:-
*Ascorbates and erythrobates are closely related
chemicals that can be used inter changeably in
sausage mixes.
*It is active reducing agent that react with Nitrite to
give Nitric Oxide.
*Ascorbate is better than erythrobate due to:
A very specific action of ascorbic acid or its salt
has been noted in relation to limiting the formation
of green discoloration that occur at times.

111
 Sugar:-
Adjunct to provide flavor:-
*Mask salt flavor.
*Provide a reservoir for an acid forming substance.

Forms of sugar added:

Sucrose, corn syrups and solids, dextrose and
sorbitol.

112
Phosphate:-
*It is used principally to accelerate development
of cured color in frankfurters in a continuous
cooker.
*The percent in the finished product is 0.5%.

113
 Acids:
*It is using especially for small sausage.
*Acid is sprayed prior smoking or cooking.
*Aim of acid using:
1- Reduce surface pH of sausage.
2-Coagulates proteins at the surface.
3-Permits coagulation at lower temp.
4-Spraying acid gives better surface and help
development of surface color.

*Acetic acid or vinegar is used extensively.

114
Liquid smoke:
*Way of liquid smoke adding:-
1- Spraying 2- Dipping 3-Atomizing onto
sausage surfaces.

*Aim of liquid smoke:-

1- Imparts flavors.
2-Improves color.
3-Aid peeling in some instances.

*Liquid smoke is finding increases usage. 115

Binders or Extenders:-
*B and E include emulsifier or stabilizer.
*Reason for adding is:-
1- Improve emulsion stability.
2-Improve cooking yield.
3-Improving slicing characteristics.
4-Improve flavor.
5-Reduce formulation costs.
*Up to 3.5% of cereal, starch, vegetable flour, soy
flour, soy protein concentrate, non fat dry milk and
calcium-reduced non fat dry milk.
116
Emulsion Diagrams

117
118
119
120
 Meat Emulsions
• true emulsion or batter?
 Stable batter or matrix,
based upon:
• viscosity & gelation potential
• quantity & type of soluble
protein
• cooking binds water/trap fat
• less functional ingredients
• fat, C.T., rework, extenders
 To form a stable meat
batter:
• start by maximizing functionality of lean meats

• bind values = % lean, WHC, collagen content,

rigor state, fresh/frozen
• add salt, phosphates & 1/3 added
water to lean
• protein extraction at 7%
brine concentration
• ice lowers temperature
• add sodium nitrite & erythorbate
• allows time for color
development
• add fatter, higher collagen meats,
cooked rework & 1/3 water to blend
–protein quantity & quality
• add extenders, spices, balance of
water:
–extenders & spices tie up water
needed for protein extraction.
–starches increase temp.
 With conventional fat
products:
• final batter temperature:
predominant fat source
–beef = 40-42F or 65-70F
(5.6 or 18-21°C)
–poultry = 45F (7°C)
• final chopping time or emulsion passes
– too short/few passes = coarse fat & poor fat
distribution
– too long = break cells & melt fat
Fat Cells
 Chopper vs.
mixer/emulsifier:
• chopper advantage = better temperature control
& better protein extraction
• emulsifier adv. = finer texture & larger volume
 For most stable emulsions,
optimize the following:
• functionality of meat
• non-meat ingredients
• chopping/emulsifying methods
• stuffing/cooking methods
 Frank-A-Matic
Stuffing Sausage
Stuffed Product Entering
Continuous Oven
Common Wiener and Casing
Sizes
• 8/1 (8 wieners per lb) = 24mm casing
• 10/1 = 20mm casing
Equipment used in making
sausage

136
137
138
139
Filler

140
End of Chapter Seven

141
 SPICES AND
SEASONINGS
Chapter Eight
 Spices and Seasonings
• Spices
–natural plant parts
• Seasonings and Flavorings
–mixtures of spices
–natural?
Taste
Regions of the
tongue
– sweet – tip
– salty – front sides
– sour – rear sides
– bitter – across rear
 Balance of Taste
Sensations and Flavors

• Creates unique flavors

• Balance across tongue

 Spice Characteristics

• Celery – works well with poultry

• Sugar – good with meat

masks salt
 Meat Spice
Limit Chart
• Minimum – not noticeable

• Maximum – distracting
 Sensory Descriptions
• Coriander - like eating rose
petals
• Chili - burnt flavor
• Cumin – dirty sock
• Fennel – licorice flavor
• Nutmeg – eggnog
 Sensory Descriptions
• Sage – Vicks Vaporub
• Oregano – freshly cut hay
• Paprika – corn silage
high levels – tomato
• Cloves – numbs lips/tongue
 Meat Product Spice
Characteristics
e.g., Smoked sausage: a "simply" seasoned
product, with black pepper as the major
spice flavor, red pepper is used at very
low levels, coriander is used sometimes.
Smoke and the sweet burnt flavor of
dextrose are the major flavors of smoked
sausage.
End of Chapter Eight
 Smoking and Thermal
Processing Meat Products

Chapter Nine

151
 Heat Transfer
• Convection
– heat transfer resulting from mixing of air or liquids
at different temperatures
• Conduction
– heat transfer from surface to center of products
– e.g., nail in potatoes
• Radiation
– wave transmission through space
– microwave heating

152
 TD = Temperature
Difference

Product Cross-section

Heat Transfer:
Driving force for heat transfer is the
surface-to-core temperature difference
153
 Product
Shape

• Heat is transferred along the shortest dimension.

• Naturally-shaped products like with bone will inherently

have more temperature variation. 154
 Effects of Smoke
• color - carbonyls
• flavor (surface) - phenols
• antimicrobial - phenols
• set skin - organic acids
• polycyclic aromatic hydro-carbons (PAH)
- high generation temp’s

155
 Natural Smoke Deposition
Depends Upon:
• type & condition of wood (chips, sawdust, or
logs)
• logs – more smoke, pink ring
• %RH
• Smoking (contact) time
• Air temp. & velocity

156
Pink Ring on BBQ Beef

157
Naturally Smoking Loop Sausage

158
 Liquid Smoke
• environmentally friendly
• natural smoke is captured in acidic solution
• atomized or dipped
• now very close to natural smoke taste/aroma

159
 Thermal Process Troubleshooting

• cook too fast - break emulsion & toughen whole

muscle products

• cook at too high %RH - fat rendering

• too low %RH – tough collagen casings.

160
 Regulatory
Requirements and
Product Safety

161
 Meat Inspection
Requirements:
• Hairnets required to cover hair on head, beards &
mustaches (ODA)
– Have the “right to bare arms.”

• White coats over street clothes for raw product

handling

• Blue coats for cooked product handling

162
• No jewelry (rings, watches, etc.)
• Separation of raw vs. cooked, fresh vs. cured
products

• Label product:

• Keep tubs/pans off floor

163
• Keep cardboard boxes off tables, other contact surfaces

• No eating/drinking in inspected areas.

• No open-toed shoes, shorts or shoes worn in barns.
• Inedible vs. trash barrels.
– product vs. viscera
• Trim surface of any product touching floor or discard.

164
 Fully Cooked Products
• Contact surfaces and gloved hands cleaned &
sanitized.
• Also need clean knives, thermometers, blue
coats.
• Separation of products in time and space.

165
 5 Parts of SOP:
• Must have a written plan describing daily
procedures that establishment will conduct before
and during operations, and frequency at which they
will be conducted to prevent direct contamination
or adulteration of product (s).

• Must maintain daily records.

– corrective actions.

166
 SOP Cont…..
• Signed/dated by person with on-site authority upon
initiation & when modified.

• Must identify pre-operational and operational

sanitation activities.

• Must identify who is responsible for implementing &

maintaining daily activities.

167
 General Lab Practices
• Need to contact Lab officer, before doing
any work in Meat Lab.
• Clean up after labs and individual project
processing.
• Dress warmly for labs.

168
Processed Product
Safety

169
 Processed Meat Microbiology: Lines
of Defense
• minimize contamination
– raw materials & finished
• processing interventions
– salt, nitrite, lactate, cooking
• suppress growth
– packaging, temp. control

170
 Where Contamination Can
Happen?
• plant design & construction
• equipment design
• raw materials
• maintenance
• employee hygiene
• cleaning & sanitizing

171
 Processing Interventions
• Salt, nitrite, lactacte, phosphates
• floral shift Gram- to Gram+
– lag phase after curing

• Fermenting & drying

• pH and aw reduction
• competitive inhibition

172
 Processing Interventions

• Cooking
• 144 to 160F (140F for 12 min)
• 95% reduction
• more susceptible to contamination

173
 Processing Interventions
• Cooling (stabilization)
• slow C. perfringen growth
• Freezing
• slows growth, doesn’t always destroy organisms
• Irradiation
• beef, poultry & spices, not processed meat products.

174
Hurdle Effect or Barrier Concept
• synergism using 2 or more intervention
methods.
• multiple hurdles decrease the chance of
resistant strains.

175
 Pathogens vs. Spoilage
Organisms
• spoilage organisms cause color, aroma and
flavor changes
• pathogens cause illness and sometimes death
• pathogens not competitive

176
 Spoilage:
• Quality changes due to m.o. growth and
byproducts of growth
• oxidation of color/fat, flavor changes

• Total plate counts do not always indicate

shelf life or safety

177
178
 Food Intoxication:
• toxin ingested
• short incubation period
• no fever
• Staph. poisoning & botulism

179
 Food Infection
• bacteria ingested
– toxin produced in stomach
• longer incubation/fever
• Salmonella, E. coli, Campylobacter

180
What organisms should the meat industry
be most concerned about?

• E.coli 0157:H7?
• Salmonella - 24 hr. Flu?
• Campylobacter?

181
 Food-Borne Illness Cases in US:

• processing plants - 5%
• home preparation - 20%
• away-from-home prep - 75%

182
Listeria Interventions:
Processing

183
 Processing Interventions
• Product Formulations
• Post-Packaging Pasteurization

184
 Product Formulations
• Some products will not support growth of
L. monocytogenes:
• High acid content (< pH4.5)
» Fermented products (lactics)
• Low water activity
• High salt levels

185
 Product Formulations
• Organic Acids
• Smoke – liquid or natural
• Spices – natural resins.
• Preservatives
• Bacteriocins

186
 Organic Acids
• 4.8% sodium and/or potassium lactate and
• 0.25% sodium diacetate
approved as antimicrobial agents in meat products.

• Synergistic effect of lactates and diacetates in inhibiting

growth of L. monocytogenes in meat products.

187
 Organic Acids
• Effective when added to formulations, but not as
a dip.
• 2-3% sodium lactate without flavor problems.
• >0.12% sodium diacetate can result in vinegar
flavor.

188
 Smoked Products

• Both natural & liquid effective.

• Phenols and acetic acid most anti-listerial.

189
 Preservatives
• High levels of sodium benzoate, propyl
paraben, potassium sorbate.
• More effective at lower pH and temperatures
• BHA, BHT, TBHQ effective.
• Limited approval for use in meat products.

190
 Bacteriocins
• Natural polypeptides from bacteria that inhibit
other bacteria.

• Nisin & pediocin (lactics) inhibit L. mono.

• Only Nisin approved and commercially

available on large scale.

191
Post-Packaging Heat/Pasteurization
• Heat re-applied to package surfaces to destroy
any surface cross contaminated.
• Immerse package in hot water
• Surface steam (205F, 15 sec)
• Hot air or infrared.

192
Post-Packaging Heat Disadvantages
• Difficult to heat all surfaces
• May adversely affect package.
• Product changes with heat (color, texture, purge, etc.)
• Expensive
• Apply heat/moisture in ref. room (condensation, etc.)

193
 Non-Thermal Post-Packaging
Treatments
• High Pressure (HPP)
– Expensive, batch process
• Pulsed Electric Field (PEF)
– better with fluid products
• Ultraviolet (UV) Light – Lm resistant, surface effect only
• Electrolyzed oxidizing water
– some promise, not near term

End of Chapter Nine

194