Fair Use Notice

The material used in this presentation i.e., pictures/graphs/text, etc. is solely

intended for educational/teaching purpose, offered free of cost to the students for
use under special circumstances of Online Education due to COVID-19 Lockdown
situation and may include copyrighted material - the use of which may not have
been specifically authorised by Copyright Owners. It’s application constitutes Fair
Use of any such copyrighted material as provided in globally accepted law of many
countries. The contents of presentations are intended only for the attendees of the
class being conducted by the presenter.
 Transfer Function

Transfer function provides a relationship

between output signal of control system and
input signal for all possible conditions.

A block diagram is a visualization of the control

system which uses blocks to represent the
transfer function, and arrows which represent
the various input and output signals

2
 Transfer Function
• For any control system there exists a reference input
known as excitation or cause which operates through
a transfer operation (i.e transfer function) to produce
an effect resulting in controlled output response.

• Thus the cause and effect relationship between the

output and input is related to each other through a
transfer function

input output
Transfer function
3
 Transfer Function
Transfer Function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace
Transform of output to the Laplace Transform of input when
initial conditions are assumed to be zero.

For example in Laplace Transform, if the input

represented by R(s) and the output is represented by C(s),
then the transfer function G(s) will be

 G
 C

That is the transfer function of the system multiplied by

the input function gives the output function of the system
4
 Procedure for developing a transfer function of a system

1. Form the equations for the system.

2. Take Laplace transform of the system equation,

assuming initial conditions as zero.

3. Specify system output and input.

4. Take the ratio of the Laplace transform of the

output and Laplace transform of the input
which is the required transfer function
5
 Transfer Function
Transfer Function is defined as the ratio of the Laplace Transform
of output to the Laplace Transform of input when initial conditions are
assumed to be zero.:

  𝑑 2 𝑦 (𝑡 ) 𝑑 𝑦 (𝑡 )
𝑎2 2
+𝑎1 +𝑎0 𝑦 (𝑡 )= 𝑏0 𝑥 (𝑡 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

where x(t) is input and y(t) is output a 1,a2,ao and bo are constants.

Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides of the above equation and
ignoring the initial conditions we get

𝑎  2 𝑠 2 𝑌 ( 𝑠 )+𝑎1 𝑠𝑌 ( 𝑠 )+𝑎0 𝑌 (𝑠)=𝑏 0 𝑋 (𝑠)

 𝑌 ( 𝑠) 𝑏0
= 2 Transfer function
𝑋 (𝑠 ) 𝑎2 𝑠 +𝑎 1 𝑠+𝑎 0 6
Transfer Function (Poles and Zeros)
 𝑌 ( 𝑠) 𝑏0
=
𝑋 (𝑠 ) 𝑎2 𝑠2 +𝑎 1 𝑠+𝑎 0

• The roots of the numerator of the transfer

function are called zeros
 
0

The roots of the denominator are called poles.

Characteristics Equation

2
 𝑎 2 𝑠 +𝑎1 𝑠 +𝑎 0=0
7
 Pole Zero Plot (s plane)
j


o
o  o  
o


•  is the real part and j is the imaginary part of s.

• Poles and zeros may lie anywhere in the s plane.
• Complex poles and zeros always appear as a complex
conjugate pair. 8
4000,1000,-1000,-4000

9
 Stability
• A linear time invariant system is said to be
stable if all its poles have negative real parts.

• In other words, all poles of a stable system lie

in the left half of the s plane (LHP).

• Zeros of a stable system may be located

anywhere in the s plane.

10
 Example:
Check stability of the following systems
(s  5)(s  3)
H (s ) 
(s  0.1)(s  0.8)

Solution:
zeros: s = 5 and s = -3; poles: s = -0.1 and s = - 0.8
The system is stable because both poles are negative.

j

Poles
zero
zero

o  o 
11
Mathematical Modelling

Mechanical
Translatory
Systems

12
Modelling of Mechanical Translational Systems
Basic Elements: Translational Spring
i)

Translational Mass
ii)

Translational Damper
iii)

13
 Translational Spring
• A translational spring is a mechanical element that
can be deformed by an external force such that the
deformation is directly proportional to the force
applied to it.

Translational Spring
i)

Circuit Symbols
Translational Spring

14
 Translational Spring
• If F is the applied force
x1
x2

• Then x1 is the deformation if x 2  0 F

( x1  x2 ) F
• Otherwise is the deformation.

• The equation of motion is given as

F  k ( x1  x2 )
k
where is stiffness of spring expressed in N/m 15
 Translational Mass
• Translational Mass is an inertia Translational Mass
element. ii)

• A mechanical system without

mass does not exist.

• If a force F(t) is applied to a mass x(t )

and it is displaced to x(t) meters
then the relation b/w force and F (t )
M
displacement is given by
Newton’s law.
dv (t ) d 2 x(t )
F (t )  Ma(t )  M M
dt dt 2
16
 Translational Damper
• When the viscosity or drag is not
negligible in a system, we often
model them with the damping
force.

• All the materials exhibit the Translational Damper

iii)
property of damping to some
extent.

• If damping in the system is not

enough then extra elements
(e.g. Dashpot) are added to
increase damping.
17
 Common Uses of Dashpots
Door Stoppers
Vehicle Suspension

Bridge Suspension
Flyover Suspension

18
 Translational Damper

 
𝐹=𝐵 𝑥˙
 
𝐹=𝐵( 𝑥˙ 1 − 𝑥˙ 2)

where B is damping coefficient (N/ms-1).

19
 Modelling of Simple spring mass Translational Systems
Consider the following spring mass system shown in figure, when force
(F)applied to the system the mass will cover the distance (x) in direction of
force by overcoming the spring resistance and inertia of mass

k
x
F
M

Neglecting the friction of the system, the differential equation

of system can be written as:

d 2 x(t ) 20
F (t )  M 2
 kx(t )
dt
 Modelling of Simple spring mass Translational Systems
Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides differential
equation of the system

F ( S )  Ms 2 X ( s )  kX ( s )

Rearranging the equation in term of ratio of output and

The transfer function of the system yields as

 𝑋 (𝑠 ) 1
=
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑀 𝑠 2 +𝑘

21
Modelling of Simple spring mass and damper syste Translational Systems

1  𝑋 (𝑠 )
=
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑀 𝑠 2 +𝑘
This transfer function has two poles and no zero. The value of the
two poles is  j k / M
• The pole-zero map of the system is
Pole-Zero Map
40

30

20
Im a g in a r y A x is

10

-10

-20

-30

-40
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 22
Real A xis
Modelling of Simple spring mass and damper syste Translational Systems

 𝑋 (𝑠 ) 1
= 2
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑀 𝑠 +𝑘

If mass M= 5 kg and spring stiffness k=10 N/m

Then Pols of system are:
 
=0 𝑆=±1 . 41 𝑗
 

 
5=0  j
𝑆=±
 
√−𝑘/𝑀
𝑆=±
 
𝑗 √𝑘 /𝑀

𝑆=±
 
𝑗 √10/5  

𝑆=±
 
𝑗 √2 23
 Modelling of Simple spring mass and damper system Translational
Systems

k
x
F
M

B
F  kx Spring Equation
dx Damper Equation
F  Bv  B
dt
  𝑑2 𝑥
𝐹 = 𝑀 𝑎= 𝑀 Mass Equation
𝑑𝑡2
  𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 Mass-Spring-Damper
𝐹=𝑀 2 + 𝐵 + 𝑘𝑥 Equation
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
 Modelling of Simple spring mass and damper system Translational
Systems
Consider the following spring mass system shown in figure, when force
(F)applied to the system the mass will cover the distance (x) in direction of
force by overcoming the spring, damping resistance and inertia of mass
k
x
M
F

B
considering the friction of the system, the differential equation
of system can be written as:
d 2 x(t ) dx (t )
F M  B  kx(t )
dt 2 dt
Taking the Laplace Transform of both sides and ignoring initial conditions we get

F ( s )  Ms 2 X ( s )  BsX ( s )  kX ( s)
25
 Stability analysis of the system

Consider a system Mass, spring damping systems with specific parameters given as
under
Mass (M = 1000 kg), Damping (B = 1000 N/ms) spring stiffness (k = 2000 N/m)

Therefore, the transfer function is

 =

Plot poles and zeros of this transfer function if

 
=0

26
Characteristics Equation

 
)/2a
 
=0
 /2 1
 
=0

 =0
S= - 0.5+1.323j S=-0.5-1.323j

j

 

27
Consider a system Mass, spring damping systems with specific parameters given as
under
Mass (M = 1000 kg), Damping (B = 4000 N/ms) spring stiffness (k = 2000 N/m)

  =

Characteristics Equation

 
=0

 
=0

 =0  j
 
)/2a

 )/2 1
   
s=-3.4142 S=-0.5858 28
Mathematical Modelling

Mechanical
Rotational
Systems

29
 Elements of Mechanical Rotational Systems

Basic Elements: k T
Torsional Spring i) θ

B T
ii)
Rotational Damper
ω

The mass T
iii)

M α

30
 Differential Equations Torsional spring
• A Torsional spring consist of a cylindrical piece of material clamped at one
end and free to rotate at the other.
• A torque T is applied to free end of spring. This causes the spring to twist.
The amount of the free end θ is known as angular displacement. The
amount by which the shaft twists is proportional to the applied torque

If both ends of spring free to rotate

k T The relative twisting will occur
θ

1
2
 
𝑇 =𝑘 𝜃
 

31
 Differential Equations Rotational Damper
• A Rotational Damper consist of a casing attached to a shaft containing a fluid such as oil. Another shaft
enters the casing and has paddles attached to it. It is fairly easy to rotate the two shafts relative to each
other if this is done slowly, that the difference in angular velocities of two shafts is small

•
• If one end of shaft is fixed and T torque T is applied to free end of shaft. This causes the spring to twist.
The amount of the free end θ is known as angular displacement. The amount by which the shaft twists is
proportional to the applied torque

T C
ii) 1
ω 2 T

 
𝑑𝜃  𝑇 = 𝐵 ( 𝜃
˙ 1 −𝜃
˙ 2)
𝑇 = 𝐵 𝜔= 𝐵
𝑑𝑡
32
 Differential Equations Rotational Mass
• When rotating a mass the amount of torque required to
achieve a given acceleration depends not only on the mass but
on its distribution about the centre of rotation.
• If a torque T is applied to a mass with moment of Inertia J then
the motion of mass is given by
T


J α J T

2
 
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝜃  
𝑇 =𝐽 𝜃¨
𝑇 =𝐽 𝛼=𝐽 =𝐽 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
33
 Rotational
Torsional Spring

T  k

d
T  B  B
dt

d 2
T  J  J
dt 2

d 2 d
T  J 2
B  k
dt dt
 Rotational
d 2 d
T  J 2
B  k
dt dt
T 

  θ ( 𝑠) 1
= 2
T (𝑠 ) 𝐽 𝑠 + 𝐵𝑠 +𝑘

 
=