Module-1 Introduction To Production Process and Metal Castings

Module 1
Introduction to Production
Process and Metal Castings
Prepared By:- Prof. Nilesh Nagare
What is Production Process???
• The production process is concerned with transforming a range of
inputs into outputs that are required by the market.
Input Process Output
• Raw Material • Manual/ • Finished

• Machines Mechanical/ Good
• Labour Chemical • Services
Operation
What is Manufacturing Process???
• The Manufacturing Process is one of the main parts of the Production
Process.
• It is that process which involves the changes of sizes/ dimensions or

shape of the part.
• Transportation or material storage is not a part of the Manufacturing

process.
Classification of Production Process
Based on Function of Process Based on Quantity of Production
1. Primary shaping processes 1. Job production
2. Secondary machining processes 2. Batch production
3. Metal forming processes 3. Mass production
4. Joining processes
5. Surface finishing processes
6. Processes effecting change in properties

Based on Function of Process
1. Primary Shaping Processes : P r i m a r y s h a p i n g p r o c e s s i s u s e d t o g i v e

the amorphous material a well-defined shape. Some of the primary
shaping p ro c e s s e s produ ce final produc ts and other needs
additional machining works. Primary shaping p ro c e s s involves
ca sting proce ss.
2. Secondary Machining Processes : M a c h i n i n g i s o n e o f t h e p r o c e s s e s o f

m a k i n g t h e p r i m a r y s h a p e s i n to f i n i s h e d g o o d s . T h e p ro c e s s t o
re m o v e u n w a n t e d m a t e r i a l s f ro m t h e j o b s u s in g c u tt i n g t o o l s i s
known as machining. The purpose of machining is to give perfect
d im e n s i o n a n d d e s i re d s h a p e .
3. Metal forming processes : M e t a l f o r m i n g i s a n o t h e r m a n u f a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e

used to give the metal d e si re d shape t hro ug h the application of
pressure/stress, forces like compression or tension or shear or the
c omb in at i o n of bo t h. B y a pp l yi n g t he se f orc e s p e rm ane nt de fo rm at i o n o f
the me t a l i s ac h i ev e d . Th ese p ro ce sse s a re al so kn ow n as me c ha ni c al
working processes.
4. Joining processes : J o i n i n g i s a p r o c e s s w e a r e u s i n g i n o u r e v e r y d a y
li f e . I n m a n u fa c tu r i n g o r f a b r i c a t i o n , t w o o r m o re m e ta l p a r t s a re
put together and joined by means of fusion, riveting, screwing,
a p p l y i n g p r e s s u r e a n d r u b b i n g . T h e s e jo in in g p ro c e s s e s a re n e e d e d
to make air-tight joints and semi-permanent or permanent
assemblies.
5. Surface finishing Processes : S u r f a c e f i n i s h i n g i s a p r o c e s s w h i c h i s a p p l i e d t o

ge t t h e de si re d l e v e l l i ng of th e s urf ac e an d al so t o ob t ai n t he d e si re d
s m o o t h n e s s . Ve r y n e g l i g i b l e a m o u n t o f t h e m a t e r i a l s i s r e m o v e d f r o m t h e
surf a c e b y th i s pro c e ss an d d oe s no t i nv ol v e an y e f f e c ti v e c ha ng e i n t he
dimensions. Putting some kind of coating over the metal is also a surface
fi n i shi n g p roc e ss.
6. Processes effecting change in properties : D i f f e r e n t p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s a m e

me t al are d e si re d f o r di f f e re nt a pp l i ca t i ons . F or so me pa rt i cu l ar u ses or
operations, suitable pro pe rt i e s are needed to be incorporated. The
properties of the materials change when the total grain size of the
materials are regrouped or reorganized. Di f fe re n t grain conditions
prov i d e di f f e re n t pro pe rt i e s. The grain sizes a re changed by the
ap pl i c at i on o f di f f e re nt h e at t re at me n t s. B y h e at t re a t me nt s, t he i nt e rn al
str uc t ure o f t h e mat e ri al i s c ha ng ed an d t h e y a c hi e v e di f f e re nt i mpro v e d
prop e rt i e s.
Based on Quantity of Production
1. Job Production : J o b p r o d u c t i o n i s t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f i n d i v i d u a l ' o n e - o f f '

o r uniq ue i t e m s m a de to c ust o m er sp e ci f i c at i ons . Th e p rodu c t i s see n
t hrou gh th e w ho le p roc e ss , f rom s ta rt t o f i ni sh , by a n i nd iv i d ua l o r group
o f wo rk e rs. Th e pro du c t i on of th e ne x t i n di v i du al i t e m d oe s no t be g in
u nt i l t he p re vi o us j o b i s c o mpl e t e .
Examples: Special Purpose Machines, Special Anniversary Cakes,

De si g ne r Dre sse s et c .
2. Batch Production : B a t c h p r o d u c t i o n i s w h e r e t h e m a n u f a c t u r i n g p r o c e s s i s
split into a number of different operations ; each of which is carried out
o n t he wh ol e b at c h b ef o re i t i s mo v e d o n an d an ot he r ba tc h re c e i v e d. Th e
b at c h i s mov e d o n fro m on e st a ge of p ro duc t i o n t o t he ne x t u nt i l a l l th e
ma nu f ac t uri n g p roc e sse s are c o mpl e t e d. B a tc h pro du c t i on i n vo l v e s th e
ma nu f ac t ure of a g rou p of id e nt i c al it e ms an d i s no rma ll y use d wh e n th e
d ema nd f or t h e pro du c t i s re l at i v e l y co ns ta nt .
Example: Cars, Bikes, Newspapers etc.

3. Mass Production : M a s s p r o d u c t i o n i s w h e r e a l l t h e d i f f e r e n t o p e r a t i o n s
re q ui re d f or prod uc t i on a re c a rri e d out in a se que nc e o ne af t e r t he
o ther . It i s u su al l y use d w he re pro du c t io n i s req ui re d t o me e t h i gh l e v e l s
of demand and when the product being man uf ac t u re d is re aso na bl y
st a nd ard iz ed .
Example: Nut, Bolts, Chips etc.

Casting
What is Casting?
Casting is a manufacturing process in which a liquid metal is usually poured into a mold,
which contains a hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to solidify. This
solidified part is known as a Casting. (E.g. Door handles, Locks, Casings, Engine Blocks etc.)
The outer casing for motors Hook Engine Block

Steps in Making Sand Casting
Pattern making
Core Making
Molding or Mold Making
Melting and Pouring
Cleaning
Further Processing
Why Castings? (Advantages):
• The wide selection of alloys available for making parts.
• Casting can produce very complex geometry parts with internal cavities
and hollow sections.
• It can be used to make small (few hundred grams) to very large size parts
(thousands of kilograms).
• It is economical, with very little wastage: the extra metal in each casting is
re-melted and re-used.
• Cast metal is isotropic – it has the same physical/mechanical properties

along any direction.
Patterns
• Patterns are the model or the replica of the object (to be casted).
• It is used for preparing a mold cavity which is used for making a

Casting.
• It creates the parting line and parting surfaces in the mould.
• Properly constructed patterns minimize overall cost of the casting.
• Properly made pattern having finished and smooth surface reduce

casting defects.
Pattern Materials
 Following materials are generally used as a pattern material:
• Wood
• Metal
• Plastic
• Plaster
• Wax
 The selection of pattern material depends on the size of casting, Complexity of

pattern, Dimensional Accuracy required, No. of castings need to be made and
cost.
Wood
■ Preferred only when the numbers of castings to be produced are less.
■ Advantages:
– It is cheap.
– Easily available in abundance.
– Repairable and easily fabricated in various forms using resin and glues.
– It is very light and can produce highly smooth surface.
– Wood can preserve its surface by application of a shellac coating for longer life
of the pattern.
■ Disadvantages:
– It is vulnerable to shrinkage and warpage.
– It is highly affected by moisture of the molding sand thus its life is short.
– It cannot withstand rough handling and is weak in comparison to metal.
The main varieties of woods used in pattern-making are Shisham, Kail, Deodar,
Teak and Mahogany.
Metal
■ Preferred when the number of castings required are large.
■ Advantages:
– These patterns are not much affected by moisture as wooden pattern.
– The wear and tear of this pattern is very less and, hence having longer life.
– Metal is easier to shape in the pattern with good precision, surface finish and
complexity in shapes.
– It can withstand against corrosion and handling for longer period.
■ Disadvantages:
– Higher cost.
– Higher weight.
– Higher tendency of rusting.
Commonly used metals for pattern making are Cast Iron, Brass, Bronze, Aluminum
alloys & White metal
Plastics
■ Plastics are gradually gaining favor as pattern materials due to following:
■ Advantages:
– Lighter in weight.
– Moisture and wear resistant
– Non-sticky to molding sand
– Durable
– Do not get affected by the moisture of the molding sand.
– Impart very smooth surface finish on the pattern surface.
■ Disadvantages:
– Fragile
– Less resistant to sudden loading
– Their section may need metal reinforcement.
Phenolic resin plastics are commonly used.

Plaster
■ Preferred for production of small size intricate castings and making core boxes.
■ Advantages
– Can be easily cast and worked with wooden tools
– Preferable for producing highly intricate casting
– It has high compressive strength
– It is generally high expansion setting type which compensate for the shrinkage
of the casting metal.
■ Disadvantages
– Weight is more
– Risk of breakage
– Inability to be used on specimens with overhangs or undercuts
Wax
 Excellent for investment casting process.
 Materials used are blends of several types of waxes and other

additives which act as polymerizing agents, stabilizers.
 The commonly used waxes are paraffin wax, shellac wax, bees-
wax, ceresin wax, and micro-crystalline wax.
Types of Pattern
 Solid or single piece pattern
 Split (Two piece) pattern
 Multi piece pattern
 Match plate pattern
 Gated pattern
 Skeleton pattern
 Sweep pattern
 Follow board pattern
 Segmental pattern
Solid or Single Piece Pattern
 Single piece pattern is the cheapest pattern among all other types of pattern.
 This pattern generally used in simple processes.
 It is applied in small scale production.
 It is often used for the generation of large castings.
 This pattern is made without joints, partings or any loose pieces in its construction.
 In this pattern one surface is considered as flat portion. This flat surface is used for parting plane.
 It is expected to lie in cope or drag.
Split (Two piece) pattern
 It is the popularly used for intricate castings.
 In two- piece pattern half part is always molded in drag and other half part is molded in cope.
 The cope part of the pattern has dowel pins. These dowel pins are used to align the two halves of split
piece pattern.
 Holes in the drag half of the two- piece pattern match exactly with dowel pins.
 It is used in applications where it is very difficult to withdraw casting from the mold.
Multi piece pattern
 Sometimes castings have very difficult and complicated designs. In such difficult situations
multi piece types of patterns are used.
 3 or more patterns are included in multi piece pattern.
Match plate pattern
 Basically Match plate pattern is a split pattern.
 Cope and drag areas are on the opposite faces of plate. This plate is termed as Match
Plate.
 The match plate may be of wood, steel, magnesium or aluminum.
 This type of pattern requires very less hard work and gives very high output.
 Advantageous in Machine molding & Mass production.
Gated pattern
 It is used to make multiple parts within a single mould.
 Single sand mould carries several cavities.
 The gates are used to connect the pattern to each other.
 All the cavity are feed by using single runner.
 The suitable gates or channels are provided for feeding the
molten metal into the cavity.
 It is mainly considered for low molding time and uniform
feeding of molten metal into the cavity.
 It is used for mass production of small casting.
Skeleton pattern
 Used if small number of large and heavy castings are to
be made.
 In this a pattern consists of wooden frame and strips
is made. Hence it is called skeleton pattern.
 The mold is filled properly, and the excess sand is
removed by means of Strickle Board.
Sweep pattern
 Used for forming large circular molds of symmetric
kind.
 Sweep is a template of wood or metal.
 Sweep pattern is often used when we have to create
casting in very short interval of time.
Follow Board Pattern
 This pattern is adopted for the castings where there

are few portions which are structurally weak and
if not supported correctly are possible to break
under force of ramming.
 Therefore a bottom board is adopted as a follow
board to intimately fit the contour of weak pattern
thus support it during the ramming.
Segmental Pattern
 It is similar to the sweep pattern.
 As the name suggest segmental pattern is in the form
of segments and used for molding circular or round
structures.
 In sweep pattern there is complete rotation but in
segmental pattern there is no complete rotation.
 Generally used for circular castings like wheel rim,
gear blank.
Loose Piece Pattern
 It is very difficult to remove one piece of solid pattern
which is above or below the parting plane having
projections from the mold.
 With the help of loose piece types of patterns projections
can be made by loose pieces.
 It requires skilled labor work as well as it is very
expensive.
 Disadvantage of this loose piece pattern is that due to
ramming process loose piece might shift from its place.
Left & Right-Hand Pattern
 Several patterns are necessary to be in pairs, and their shape is such that they cannot be
upturned.
 In such cases, Left & Right-Hand Pattern are used.

Pattern Allowances
 A pattern is replica of casting, but it has slightly different dimensions than casting. These differences are known as
pattern allowances. To produce a casting of proper size and shape, pattern allowance are given to the pattern.
Pattern size = casting size ± allowances

 Pattern allowances are given to the pattern to compensate metal shrinkage, to provide sufficient metal for
machining, to facilitate molding etc.
 These pattern allowances depend partly on design of required product, design of mould, shrinkage and
contraction characteristics of metal being cast etc.
 Due to these wide factors, it is difficult to predict precise mathematical rule for pattern allowances but by trial and
error method, it is possible to achieve pattern dimensions to obtain desired results.
• Shrinkage Allowance
• Machining Allowance
• Draft or Taper Allowance
• Rapping or Shake Allowance
• Distortion Allowance
Shrinkage Allowance
 As metal solidifies and cools, it shrinks and
contracts in size. To compensate for this, a pattern
is made larger than the finished casting. Such
allowance is known as Shrinkage Allowance.
 Shrinkage of metal during casting will takes place in
three stages:
• Shrinkage of molten metal when reducing from pouring temp
to freezing temp.
• Shrinkage of molten metal during freezing.
• Shrinkage solid metal when reducing from freezing temp to
room temp.
Shrinkage Allowance
 The metal shrinkage is of two types:
• Liquid Shrinkage:
It refers to the reduction in volume when the metal changes
from liquid state to solid state at the solidus temperature. To
account for this shrinkage; riser, which feed the liquid
metal to the casting, are provided in the mold.
• Solid Shrinkage:
It refers to the reduction in volume caused when metal loses
temperature in solid state. To account for this, shrinkage
allowance is provided on the patterns.
Machining Allowance
 The finish and accuracy achieved in sand casting is generally poor and therefore when the
casting is functionally required to be of good surface finish or dimensionally accurate,
it is generally achieved by subsequent machining.
 Machining allowance is given to compensate for material that is lost in machining or
finishing the casting.
 The amount of this allowance depends on:
• Material of Casting
• Size and shape of casting
• Methods of machining
• Degree of finish required
 Machining allowance varies from 3mm to 18mm/ side.

Draft or Taper Allowance
 When the pattern is removed from the mold, the parallel surfaces of mold
gets damaged slightly in the direction at which the pattern is withdrawn and
gets converted into slightly tapered surfaces.
 For compensation of these changes, the parallel surfaces on pattern are made
slightly tapered so that its withdrawal becomes easier. This allowance is
called as Draft or Taper Allowance.
 The normal amount of taper on the external surfaces varies from 10mm to
20mm/m.
 On interior holes and recesses which are smaller in size, the taper should be
around 60mm/m.
Rapping or Shake Allowance
 In order to remove the pattern from the sand, the pattern
will have to be shaken slightly and this will cause a slight
increase in dimension of mold cavity hence ultimately
causing increase in dimension of casting .
 To compensate this increase in dimension of mold cavity, the
patterns are made slightly smaller in dimension than
dimension of casting. This change in dimension of pattern is
known as shaking or rapping allowance.
 For small and medium sized castings, this allowance can be
ignored.
 The amount of this allowance is given based on previous
experience.
Distortion or Camber Allowance
 While cooling, stresses are developed in the solid metal
due to uneven metal thickness in the casting process.
 This stresses may cause distortion or bending in the
casting.
 To avoid this bending or distortion in casting, camber is
provided in the opposite direction so that when
bending occurs due to uneven thickness of metal, casting
becomes straight.
 This change in pattern shape to compensate bending
while casting is known as Distortion or Camber
Allowance.
 Distortion or Camber Allowance ranges from standard
finish allowance upto 20mm for large castings.
Core and Core Prints
• Castings are often required to have holes, recesses, etc. of various
sizes and shapes. These impressions can be obtained by using cores.
• So where coring is required, provision should be made to support the
core inside the mold cavity. Core prints are used to serve this
purpose.
• The core print is an added projection on the pattern, and it forms
Core
a seat in the mold on which the sand core rests during pouring of Print
the mold.
• The core print must be of adequate size and shape so that it can
support the weight of the core during the casting operation.
• Depending upon the requirement a core can be placed horizontal,
vertical and can be hanged inside the mold cavity.
Cores
• It is used to provide internal cavities, recesses, or projections in the casting. It
is usually positioned into a mould after the removal of the pattern.
• A core is usually made of the best quality sand along with binders and is
placed into desired position in the mould cavity.
• When the molten metal is poured, it flows around the core and fill the rest of
the mould cavity.
• Cores are subjected to extremely severe conditions, and they must, therefore,
possess very high resistance to erosion, exceptionally high strength, good
permeability, good refractoriness, and adequate collapsibility.
• Special vent holes are provided on the core to allow gasses to escape easily.
Sometimes, cores are reinforced with low carbon steel wires or even cast-iron
grids (in case of large cores) to ensure stability and resistance to shrinkage.
Cores
• Types of Cores:
Generally, cores are of two types:
1. Green Sand Core: A core formed by the pattern itself, in the same sand
used for the mould is known as green sand core. The pattern is so
designed that it provides the core of green sand. The hallow part in the Fig. Green Sand Core
pattern produces the green sand core.

2. Dry Sand Core: A core prepared separately in core boxes and dried, is
known as dry sand core. The dry sand cores are also known as process
cores. They are available in different sizes, shapes and designs as per the
requirement.
Fig. Dry Sand Core

Cores
• Types of Dry Sand Cores:
1. Horizontal Core: The horizontal core is the most common type of
core and is positioned horizontally at the parting surface of the
mould. The ends of the core rest in the seats provided by the core
prints on the pattern. This type of core can withstand the Fig. Horizontal Core
turbulence effect of the molten metal poured.
2. Vertical Core: The vertical core is placed vertically with some of
their portion lies in the sand. Usually, top and bottom of the core is
kept tapered but taper on the top is greater than at bottom.
Fig. Vertical Core

Cores
3. Balance Core: The balance core extends only one side of the
mould. Only one core print is available on the pattern for balance
core. This is best suitable for the casting has only one side opening.
This is used for producing blind holes or recesses in the casting. Fig. Balanced Core
4. Hanging Core: The hanging core is suspended vertically in the

mould. This is achieved either by hanging wires or the core collar
rests in the collar cavity created in the upper part of the mould.
This type of core does not have bottom support.
Fig. Hanging Core
Cores
5. Drop Core: When a hole or cavity to be cored is not in line with
the parting surface, then a drop core is used. The drop core is
placed either above or below the parting line. This core is also
known as wing core, tail core, chair core, etc. Fig. Drop Core
6. Kiss Core: The kiss core is used when several holes of less
dimensional accuracy is required. In this case, no core prints are
provided and consequentially, no seat is available for the core. The
core is held in position approximately between the cope and drag
Fig. Kiss Core
and hence referred as kiss core.
Chaplets
• If the core length is long and the end supports are Sheet Metal Chaplets
at higher distances from each other, the core will

sag during pouring of hot molten metal. To
overcome this, Chaplets are used. Cast Chaplets
• Chaplets are designed to provide the support to

the core and restrict them from sagging.
• The chaplets are made of the same material as the Double headed Chaplets
casting metal so that it can become an integral

part of the casting.
• Some commonly used chaplets are shown in fig.

Radial Chaplets
Chills
• The core chills are the metal pieces, either inserted or placed to touch the
surface of the casting for speeding up the solidification process at that
portion where it is slow.
• The thinner area solidifies faster, creating stresses and distortion of the
casting. Therefore, it is necessary to provide a means that will make the
Internal Chills
solidification (chilling) rate uniform at all sections of the casting.
• The chills are of following two types:
1. Internal Chill: An internal chill is placed in a mould at place where the
area is comparatively large to help uniform solidification throughout the
casting.
2. External Chill: An external chill is placed around the mould just External Chills
touching the surface of it.

Reinforcing of core
• The cores, while containing a metal, shift from their position due to the
turbulent action of the molten metal. Also, due to upward thrust of the
molten metal, thin cores tend to float easily and shifted from their right
position.
• To avoid shifting, the weight of the core is increased by embedding steel

rods, steel wires, thin pipes, etc., during core making. This is known as
reinforcing of core.
Types of Moulding Sand
• According to the use, Moulding sand may be classified as below:
• Green Sand
• Dry Sand
• Loam Sand
• Facing Sand
• Parting Sand
• Backing or Floor Sand
• System Sand
• Core Sand
• Green Sand • The Green sand is the natural sand containing sufficient
• Dry Sand moisture in it.

• It is mixture of silica and 15-30% clay with about 8%
• Loam Sand
water.
• Facing Sand • Water act as a bonding material to give strength.
• Parting Sand • Molds made from this sand are known as Green sand
• Backing or Floor Sand mould.

• The Green sand is used only for simple and rough casting
• System Sand
products.
• Core Sand • It is used for both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
• Green Sand
• Dry Sand
• When the moisture is removed from green sand, it is
• Loam Sand
known as Dry sand.
• Facing Sand • The mould produced by dry sand has greater strength,
• Parting Sand rigidity and thermal stability.
• Backing or Floor Sand • This sand is used for large and heavy castings.
• System Sand
• Core Sand
• Green Sand
• Dry Sand
• Loam sand is a mixture of 50 percent sand and 50
• Loam Sand
percent clay.
• Facing Sand • Water is added in sufficient amount.
• Parting Sand • It is used for large and heavy moulds (e.g. turbine parts,
• Backing or Floor Sand hoppers etc.)
• System Sand
• Core Sand
• Green Sand • It is used for facing of the mould.
• Dry Sand • It consists of silica sand and clay, without addition of

used sand.
• Loam Sand
• It is used directly next to the surface of the pattern.
• Facing Sand • Facing sand comes in direct contact with the hot molten
• Parting Sand metal; therefore it must have high refractoriness and
• Backing or Floor Sand strength.

• It has very fine grains.
• System Sand
• In machine moulding no facing sand is used.
• Core Sand
• Green Sand
• Dry Sand • A pure silica sand employed on the faces of the pattern
before moulding is known as parting sand.
• Loam Sand
• When the pattern is withdrawn from the mould, the
• Facing Sand
moulding sand sticks to it.
• Parting Sand • To avoid sticking, parting sand is sprinkled on the pattern
• Backing or Floor Sand before it is embedded in the moulding sand.

• Parting sand is also sprinkled on the contact surface of
• System Sand
cope, drag and cheek.
• Core Sand
• Green Sand
• Dry Sand
• The Backing sand is old and repeatedly used sand of
• Loam Sand
black colour.
• Facing Sand • It is used to back up the facing sand and to fill the whole
• Parting Sand volume of the box.
• Backing or Floor Sand • This sand is accumulated on the floor after casting is
removed and hence also known as Floor sand.
• System Sand
• Core Sand
• Green Sand
• Dry Sand
• Loam Sand
• System sand is employed in mechanical heavy castings and
• Facing Sand
has high strength, permeability and refractoriness.
• Parting Sand • It is used in machine moulding to fill the whole flask.
• Backing or Floor Sand • The system sand is clean and has special additives.
• System Sand
• Core Sand
• Green Sand
• Dry Sand
• Loam Sand • A sand used for making cores is known as Core sand.
• Facing Sand • It is silica sand mixed with core oil (linseed oil, resin,
mineral oil) and other binding materials (dextrin, corn
• Parting Sand
flour, sodium silicate).
• Backing or Floor Sand • It has remarkable compressive strength.
• System Sand
• Core Sand
Properties of Moulding Sand
Sr. Property Details
No.
1 Porosity or The ability of the moulding sand to allow gases to pass through it.
Permeability
The property of sand to hold its particles together. It may be defined as the strength of the
2 Cohesiveness moulding sand. This property plays a vital role in retaining intricate shapes of the mould.
The property of sand due to which the sand particles sticks to the sides of the moulding box.
3 Adhesiveness
Adhesiveness of sand enables the proper lifting of cope along with the sand.
The property of the moulding sand by virtue of which it flows to all corners around the mould
4 Plasticity when rammed, thus not providing any possibility of left out spaces, and acquires a predetermined
shape under ramming pressure.
Flowability is the ability of moulding sand to free flow and fill the recesses and the fine details in
5 Flowability
the pattern. It varies with moisture content.
Collapsibility is the property of sand due to which the sand mould collapse automatically after the
6 Collapsibility solidification of the casting. The mould should break into small particles of moulding sand with
minimum force after the casting is removed from it.
Refractoriness Refractoriness
is the property of sand to withstand high temperature of molten metal without
7 fusion or soften. Usually, sand moulds should be able to withstand up to 1650°C.
GATING SYSTEM
Gating System in Casting
Gating System in Casting
Gating System is used to allow the flow of
molten metal from ladle to mould cavity
in a controlled manner.
Following are the important components
of Gating System:
1. Pouring Basin
2. Sprue
3. Sprue Base/ Sprue Base Well
4. Runner
5. Gates
6. Mould Cavity
7. Riser
Requirements for a proper Gating System
o Mould should be filled completely in smallest possible time.
o Metal should flow smoothly into the mould without any turbulence.
o Unwanted material should not be allowed inside the mould cavity.
o Aspiration of air into mould cavity should be prevented.
o Proper thermal gradient should be maintained so that casting is cooled without any shrinkage.
o No gating or mould erosion should takes place.
o Enough molten metal should reach the cavity.
o Should be economical and easy to implement & remove after casting solidification.
Pouring Basin
 Pouring Basin acts as a reservoir.
 It stops slag from entering mould cavity by
means of skimmer or skim core.
 It may be cut into cope portion or separate dry
sand pouring basin may be used.
 For making proper casting, the molten metal in
the pouring basin should be full.
 Inclined edge: to absorb momentum & avoid
vortex formation.
Sprue
 It is a channel through which molten metal is
brought to parting plane & ultimately reaches to
mould through runners and gates.
 Tapered: to eliminate problem of air aspiration.
Sprue Base/ Sprue Base Well
 It acts as a reservoir for metal at the bottom of
the Sprue.
 It ensures the uniform flow of metal into the
runner.
Runner
 Runners are generally located in horizontal
plane (parting plane).
 It connects Sprue to in-gates.
 These are generally Trapezoid in cross section.
 Generally runners are made in cope portion of
the mould.
Gates/ In-Gates
 Openings through which molten metal enters
the mould cavity are called as Gate.
 The gates are classified as:
a) Top Gate
b) Bottom Gate
c) Parting Gate
d) Step Gate
a) Top Gate
 In this type of gate, molten metal enters the cavity
from top.
 Favorable temperature gradient towards gate is
achieved.
 Mould filling time is less.
 As the molten metal enters the cavity from top, it is
likely to cause mould erosion.
 It causes turbulence in mould cavity.
b) Bottom Gate
• Molten metal enters the cavity from the bottom thus no
erosion of mould.
• Unfavorable temperature gradient as compared to top gate.
• Higher mould filling time.
• Used for the moulds which are very deep.

c) Parting Gate
• It is most widely used.
• In parting gate, metal enters the mould at parting plane.
• It is very easy and economical to prepare the parting gate.
d) Step Gate
• It is used when casting to be produced is heavy & very large.
• Molten metal enters the cavity through number of gates which are arranged in vertical
steps, hence it is called as Step Gate.
Gates
Riser
 Riser is a passage in molding sand made in the
cope portion of the mold. Molten metal rises in
it after filling the mould cavity completely.
 Function of Riser:
 The primary function of riser is to feed molten
metal to accommodate liquid shrinkage
occurring during solidification of the casting.
 Permits the escape of air and mold gases as the
mold cavity is being filled with the molten metal.
 Indicates to the foundry man whether mold
cavity has been filled completely or not.
Types of Riser
Open Riser (Top Riser) Blind Riser (Side Riser)
• The top surface of the riser will be open to • Blind Riser is completely enclosed in the
the atmosphere. mould and not exposed to the atmosphere.
• The open riser is usually placed on the top • The molten metals cools slower and stay
of the casting. longer promoting directional
solidification.
• Gravity and atmospheric pressure causes • The liquid metal is fed to solidifying
the liquid metal in the riser to flow into casting under the force of gravity alone.
the solidifying casting.
Special Casting Processes
Classification of Casting Process
● According to nature of the mold used:
❑ Expendable Mold Casting : use temporary or non-reusable molds.
❑ Permanent Mold Casting : use of metallic dies that are permanent in nature.
Expendable Mold Permanent Mold

● Can produce one metal casting only. ● Can manufacture many metal castings.
● Made of sand, plaster, or other similar material. ● Usually made of metal or sometimes a
refractory ceramic.
● Binders used to help material hold its form.
● No need to use binders.
● Mold in which metal solidifies must be
destroyed to remove casting. ● Mold has sections that can open or close,
permitting removal of the casting.
● More intricate geometries are possible for
casting. ● Need of open mold limits part shapes.
Sand Casting
● Sand casting is the most widely used casting process.
● It utilizes expendable sand molds to form complex metal parts that can be made of nearly any alloy.
● Because the sand mold must be destroyed in order to remove the part, called the casting, sand casting typically
has a low production rate.
● The sand casting process involves the use of a furnace, metal, pattern, and sand mold.
● The metal is melted in the furnace and then with the help of ladle, it is poured into the cavity of the sand mold,
which is formed by the pattern.
● As this molten metal solidifies, the sand mold is separated along a parting line and the solidified casting can be
removed.
● Advantages:
❑ It can be employed for all types of metal.
❑ The tooling cost is low.
❑ It can be used to cast very complex shapes.
● Disadvantages:
❑ Sand castings offer poor dimensional accuracy and surface finish.
Applications of Sand Casting
1. Engine blocks
2. Machine tool base
3. Cylinder heads
(3)
(1)
4. Pump housings
5. Valves
(2) (4) (5)

Molding Methods
In order to prepare a component in the casting process, the mold is used. Molten metal is
poured into this mold cavity and allowed to solidify. In order to prepare the mold, two
methods are generally used:
1. Hand Molding method
2. Machine Molding method

Hand Molding Methods
• If the force required for ramming and compressing of molding sand is obtained from a
human hand, then it is called as hand molding.
• The properties of Hand Moulding method are as follows:

o It is the cheapest method of mold making.
o Complex shapes of the patterns can be easily used in mold making without any damages to the
pattern.
o Strength and Hardness of the mold are non-uniform because of the non-uniform force applied
by hand.
o The rate of production is low.
Machine Molding Methods
• If the molding operations are performed with the help of machine then they are called
Machine Molding Operations.
• The Machine Molding operations used in the casting process are as follows:
• Jolting Operation
• Squeezing Operation
• Jolting and Squeezing Operations
• Sand Slinging Operation

Jolting Operation
• A jolt machine consists of a flat table mounted on a piston-cylinder
arrangement and can be raised or lowered by means of compressed air.
• In operation, the mould box with the pattern and sand is placed on the table.
The table is raised to a short distance and then dropped down under the
influence of gravity against a solid bed plate. The action of raising and dropping
(lowering) is called 'Jolting'.
• Jolting causes the sand particles to get packed tightly above and around the
pattern. The number of 'jolts' may vary depending on the size and hardness of
the mould required. Usually, less than 20 jolts are sufficient for a good
moulding.
• The disadvantage of this type is that, the density and hardness of the rammed
sand at the top of the mould box is less when compared to its bottom portions.
Squeezing Operation
• In squeeze machine, the mould box with pattern and sand in it is placed on a
fixed table as shown in figure.
• A flat plate or a rubber diaphragm is brought in contact with the upper surface of
the loose sand and pressure is applied by a pneumatically operated piston.
• The squeezing action of the plate causes the sand particles to get packed tightly
above and around the pattern.
• Squeezing is continued until the mould attains the desired density.
• In some machines, the squeeze plate may be stationary with the mould box
moving upward.
• The disadvantage of squeeze machine is that, the density and hardness of the
rammed sand at the bottom of the mould box is less when compared to its top
portions.
Jolting and Squeezing Operation
• Jolt squeeze machine combines the operating principles of 'jolt' and 'squeeze’ machines resulting
in uniform ramming of the sand in all portions of the moulds
• The machine makes use of a match plate pattern placed between the cope and the drag box.
• The whole assembly is placed on the table with the drag box on it.
• The table is actuated by two pistons in air cylinders, one inside the other. One piston called 'Jolt
piston' raises and drops the table repeatedly for a predetermined number of times, while the
other piston called 'squeeze piston' pushes the table upward to squeeze the sand in the flask
against the squeeze plate. In operation, sand is filled in the drag box and jolted repeatedly by
operating the jolt piston.
• After jolting, the complete mould assembly is rolled over by hand.
• The cope is now filled with sand and by operating the squeeze piston, the mould assembly is
raised against the squeeze plate. By the end of this operation, the sand in the mould box is
uniformly packed.
• The match plate is now vibrated and removed. The mould is finished and made ready for pouring
Sand Slinger Operation
• A sand slinger is an automatic machine equipped with a unit that throws
sand rapidly and with great force into the mould box. Figure shows a sand
slinger. Sand slinger consists of a rigid base, sand bin, bucket elevator, belt
conveyor, ramming head (sand impeller) and a swinging arm.
• In operation, the pre-mixed sand mixture from the sand bin is picked by the
bucket elevator and is dropped on to the belt conveyor.
• The conveyor carries the sand to the ramming head, inside which there is a
rotating impeller having cup shaped blades rotating at high speeds (around
1800 rpm).
• Small quantities of molding sand is thrown into the mold with a certain
amount of force so that localized ramming action takes place and it gives
the uniform strength and hardness to the mold.
CO2 Molding
• CO2 Molding is basically a hardening process for molds and cores.
• Principle:
• If CO2 gas is passed through the sand mix containing Sodium Silicate (Water glass), the sand
becomes strongly bonded as Sodium Silicate becomes a stiff gel. This stiff gel imparts hardness
to the mold.
• Reaction:
Na2.SiO3 + (x)H2O + CO2 ⟶ Na2CO3 + SiO2.(x)H2O

Sodium Water Sodium Silica
Silicate Carbonate Gel
CO2 Molding
• The mold making process is similar to conventional molding procedure except the mould material
which comprises of pure dry silica sand free from clay, 3-5% sodium silicate as binder and moisture
content generally less than 3%.
• The prepared molding sand is rammed around the pattern in the mould box and mould is prepared
by any conventional technique. Pattern used may be of wood, metal or plastic.
• After packing, carbon dioxide gas at about 1.3-1.5 kgf/cm2 pressure is then forced all round the
mold surface to about 20 to 30 seconds using CO2 head or probe or curtain. The special pattern can
also be used to force the carbon dioxide gas all round the mold surfaces.
• As a thumb rule, the volume of CO2 required is 0.50 to 0.75 kg for every 1 kg of Sodium Silicate
present in the sand.
• Over gassing results in deteriorating the sand.
• The Hardness of the mould and cores can be further increased by exposing them to the atmosphere
for short period of time after gassing.
CO2 Molding
Shell Mould Casting - Introduction
• Shell mold casting or shell molding is a metal casting process in manufacturing industry
in which the mold is a thin hardened shell of sand and thermosetting resin binder, backed
up by some other material.
• Shell mold casting is particularly suitable for steel castings of smaller size; however
almost any metal that can be cast in sand can be cast with the shell molding process.
• Typical parts manufactured in industry using the shell mold casting process include
cylinder heads, gears, bushings, connecting rods, camshafts and valve bodies.
Shell Mould Casting
Shell Mould Casting - Process
• The first step in the shell mold casting process is to manufacture the shell mold. The fine-grained sand is
mixed with a thermosetting resin binder.

• The metal pattern is then heated to a temperature of 350°F-700°F (≈175°C-370°C).
• The sand mixture is then poured or blown over the hot casting pattern. Due to the reaction of the
thermosetting resin with the hot metal pattern, a thin shell forms on the surface of the pattern.
• The desired thickness of the shell is dependent upon the strength requirements of the mold for the
particular metal casting application.

• A typical industrial manufacturing mold for a shell molding casting process could be 0.3in (≈7.5mm) thick.
• The thickness of the mold can be controlled by the length of time the sand mixture is in contact with the
metal casting pattern.

• The excess "loose" sand is then removed, leaving the shell and pattern.
Shell Mould Casting - Process
• The shell and pattern are then placed in an oven for a short period of time, (minutes), which causes the
shell to harden onto the casting pattern.

• Once the baking phase of the manufacturing process is complete, the hardened shell is separated from the
casting pattern by way of ejector pins built into the pattern.

• Two of these hardened shells, each representing half the mold for the casting, are assembled together
either by gluing or clamping.

• This mold is then placed in the container and supported by the sand or metal shots around the mold.
• The molten metal is then poured in the mold and then allowed to solidify. This solidified casting is then
taken out from the mold by breaking the mold.

Properties of Shell Mould Casting
● The internal surface of the shell mold is very smooth and rigid.
● Enables the manufacture of complex parts with thin sections and smaller projections.
● High dimensional accuracy.
● Shell mold casting processes can be easily automated.
● Less permeable than green sand molds.
● The expense of shell mold casting is increased by the cost of the thermosetting resin binder, but
decreased by the fact that only a small percentage of sand is used compared to other sand
casting processes.
● The special metal patterns needed for shell mold casting are expensive hence they are used only
for large batch production.
Investment Casting - Introduction
• Investment casting is a manufacturing process in which a wax pattern is coated with a
refractory ceramic material.
• Once the ceramic material is hardened, its internal geometry takes the shape of the casting.
• The wax is melted out and molten metal is poured into the cavity where the wax pattern
was.
• The metal solidifies within the ceramic mold and then the metal casting is broken out. This
manufacturing technique is also known as the lost wax process.
• Parts manufactured in industry by this process include dental fixtures, gears, cams,
ratchets, jewellery, turbine blades, machinery components and other parts of complex
geometry.
Investment Casting
Investment Casting - Process
• At first, a wax pattern of desired shape is manufactured. The pattern for this process may also be made
from plastic however, it is often made of wax since it will melt out easily and wax can be reused. The mold
to create wax patterns may be cast or machined. The size of this master die must be carefully calculated.
• Many wax patterns may be connected and poured together producing many castings in a single process.
This is done by attaching the wax patterns to a wax bar, the bar serves as a central sprue. A ceramic
pouring cup is attached to the end of the bar. This arrangement is called a tree.
• The metal casting pattern is then dipped in a refractory slurry whose composition includes extremely
fine-grained silica, water and binders. A ceramic layer is obtained over the surface of the pattern. The
pattern is then repeatedly dipped into the slurry to increase the thickness of the ceramic coat.
• Once the refractory coat over the pattern is thick enough, it is allowed to dry in the air in order to harden.
Investment Casting - Process
• The hardened ceramic mold is turned upside down and heated to a temperature of around 200°F-375°F
(≈90°C-175°C). This causes the wax to flow out of the mold, leaving the cavity for the metal casting.
• The ceramic mold is then heated to around 1000°F-2000°F (≈550°C-1100°C). This will further strengthen
the mold, eliminate any leftover wax or contaminants and drive out water from the mold material.
• The molten metal is then poured while the mold is still hot. Pouring the molten metal while the mold is
hot allows the molten metal to flow easily through the mold cavity, filling detailed and thin sections.
Pouring the molten metal in a hot mold also gives better dimensional accuracy, since the mold and molten
metal will shrink together as they cool.
• After pouring of the molten metal into the mold, it is allowed to set as the solidification process takes
place.
• Once the castings are solidified, these ceramic mold are broken and the excess parts are cut from the tree.
Properties of Investment Casting
● Casting of extremely complex parts can be easily manufactured with good surface
finish.
● Very thin sections (as narrow as 0.4mm) can be produced by this process.
● Allows for high dimensional accuracy.
● Any metal can be casted by this method.
● Parts manufactured by this process are generally small.
● Investment casting is a complicated process.
● It is relatively expensive.
Die Casting
● Die casting is a permanent mold manufacturing process that uses large amounts of
pressure to force molten metal into the mold.
● Since so much pressure is used to ensure the flow of metal into the mold, metal castings
with great surface detail, dimensional accuracy, and extremely thin walls can be
produced.
● Typical parts made in industry by die casting include tools, toys, carburetors, machine
components etc.
● Die Casting is basically of 2 types:
1. Hot Chamber Die Casting
2. Cold Chamber Die Casting
Hot Chamber Die Casting
● In hot chamber die casting manufacture, the supply of molten
metal is attached to the die casting machine and is an integral
part of the casting apparatus for this manufacturing operation.
● The shot cylinder provides the power for the injection stroke. It is
located above the supply of molten metal.
● The plunger rod goes from the shot cylinder down to the plunger,
which is in contact with the molten material. At the start of a casting
cycle, the plunger is at the top of a chamber (the hot-chamber).
Intake ports allow this chamber to fill with liquid metal.
● As the cycle begins, the power cylinder forces the plunger
downward. The plunger travels past the ports, cutting off the flow of
liquid metal to the hot chamber.
● There should be the correct amount of molten material in the
chamber that will be used to fill the mold and produce the casting.
● At this point the plunger travels further downward, forcing the
molten metal into the die.
● The pressure exerted on the liquid metal usually varies from about
700psi to 5000psi (≈ 5 to 35 MPa). The pressure is held long enough
till the casting solidify.
● Now for the next cycle of casting manufacture, the plunger travels
back upward in the hot chamber exposing the intake ports again and
allowing the chamber to refill with molten material.
● Now, this solidified casting is taken out by opening the mold.
● Advantages:
Hot chamber die casting has a very high rate of productivity.
● Disadvantages:
The setup requires that critical parts of the mechanical apparatus, (such as the plunger), must be continuously
submersed in molten material. This will cause the damage to these components. For this reason, usually only lower
melting point alloys of lead, tin, and zinc are used to manufacture metal castings with the hot chamber die casting
process.
Cold Chamber Die Casting
● Cold chamber die casting is a permanent mold metal casting
process.
● It consists of a reusable mold which is machined precisely from two
steel blocks.
● Large robust machines are used to exert the great clamping force
necessary to hold the two halves of the mold together against the
tremendous pressures exerted during this manufacturing process.
● A metal shot chamber, (cold-chamber), is located at the entrance of
the mold. A Ram is connected to this chamber, which in turn is
connected to a power cylinder.
● At the start of the manufacturing cycle, the correct amount of molten
material for a single shot is poured into the shot chamber.
● The power cylinder forces the piston forward in the chamber, cutting
off the intake port.
Cold Chamber Die Casting
● The power cylinder moving the piston forward forces the molten material into
the casting mold with great pressure. This pressure causes the liquid metal to
fill in even thin sections of the metal casting and press the mold walls for great
surface detail.
● The pressure is maintained some time after the injection phase of die casting.
● Once the metal casting solidifies, the pressure is released, and the mold is
opened, and the casting is removed by means of ejector pins.
● The mold is sprayed with lubricant before closing again, and the piston is
withdrawn in the shot chamber for the next cycle of production.
● Since the liquid metal is brought in from an outside source, the metals with
higher melting point aluminum, brass, copper, and aluminum-zinc can also be
casted.
Vacuum Casting
Induction Furnace Induction Furnace

Vacuum Casting
● A mixture of fine sand and urethane is molded over metal dies and cured with amine vapour.
● The mould is then held with a robot arm and immersed partially into molten metal held in an
induction furnace.
● The vacuum reduces the air pressure inside the mould to about two-thirds of atmospheric
pressure, thus drawing the molten metal into the mould cavities through a gate in the bottom
of the mould.
● Molten metal is kept at a temperature 55°C above liquidus, so that it begins to solidify within a
very short time.
● After the mould is filled, it is withdrawn from the molten metal and once this molten metal
solidify, this solidified casting is taken out.
Casting Defects
Blowholes
• When gases entrapped on the surface of the casting while metal
solidification, rounded or oval shaped cavities are formed called as
blowholes. These defects are always present in the cope part of the mold.
Sr. No. Causes Remedies

The moisture content in the sand must be
1 Excessive moisture in the sand. controlled and kept at desired level.
2 Low Permeability of the sand. High permeability sand should be used.
3 Sand grains are too fine. Sand of appropriate grain size should be used.
4 Too hard rammed sand. Sufficient ramming should be done.
5 Insufficient venting is provided. Adequate venting facility should be provided.

Pinholes
• They are very small holes of about 2 mm in size which appears on
the surface of the casting. This defect happens because of the
dissolution of the hydrogen gases in the molten metal.

Reduce the moisture content in the molding
1 Use of high moisture content sand. sand.
Absorption of hydrogen or carbon monoxide gas
2 by molten metal. Permeability of the sand should be increased.
When steel is poured from wet ladles or is not Good melting or fluxing practices should be
3 sufficiently gasified. used.
Misrun
• When the molten metal solidifies before completely filling the
mold cavity and leaves a space in the mold is called as misrun.

Increasing the pouring temperature of the
1 Low fluidity of the molten metal. molten metal increases the fluidity.
Low temperature of the molten metal which
2 decreases its fluidity. Proper gating system should be provided.
Too thin section should be avoided while

3 Too thin section and improper gating system. designing.
Shift or Mismatch
• The defect caused due to misalignment of upper and lower part of
the mold and misplacement of the core at parting line is called
Shift or Mismatch.
Improper alignment of cope and drag part Proper alignment of the pattern or die part,
1 during mold preparation. molding boxes and correct mountings of pattern
on pattern plates.
Check the alignment of flask and align it
2 Misalignment of flask. properly.
Drop
• Drop is an irregularly shaped projection on the cope surface of a
casting. It occurs when there is cracking on the upper surface of
the sand mould and sand pieces fall into the molten metal.

Sand of high strength should be used with
1 Soft ramming and low strength of sand. proper ramming.
There should be proper fluxing of molten metal,
2 Insufficient fluxing of molten metal. so the impurities present in molten metal are
removed easily before pouring it into the mold.
Insufficient reinforcement of sand projections in Sufficient reinforcement of the sand projections
3 the cope. in the cope should be provided.
Swell
• It is the enlargement of the mold cavity because of the molten
metal pressure, which results in localized or overall enlargement
of the casting.

The sand should be rammed properly and
1 Defective or improper ramming of the mold. evenly.
Metal Penetration
• These casting defects appear as an uneven and rough surface of
the casting. When the size of sand grains is larges, the molten
metal fuses into the sand and solidifies giving us metal penetration
defect.
This defect can be eliminated by using high
1 It is caused due to low strength of sand. strength of sand.
This defect can be eliminated by using small
2 It is caused due to large grain size of sand. grain size of sand.
This defect can be eliminated by using low
3 It is caused due to high permeability of sand. permeability of sand.
This defect can be eliminated by using proper
4 It is caused due to soft ramming of sand. ramming of sand.
Cold Shut
• It is a type of surface defects. When the molten metal enters the
mold from two gates and when these two streams of molten metal
meet at a junction with low temperatures than they do not fuse
with each other and solidifies creating a cold shut (appear as line
on the casting)

1 Poor gating system. Improve the gating system.
2 Low melting temperature. Use proper pouring temperature.
3 Lack of Fluidity. Use proper pouring temperature.

Hot Tears or Hot Cracks
• Hot tears arise when the solidifying metal does not have sufficient
strength to resist tensile forces produced during solidification. The
failure of casting in this case looks like cracks and called as hot
tears or hot cracks.

Improper mold design (such as abrupt sectional Proper mold design can easily eliminate these
1 changes). types of casting defects.
2 Incorrect Pouring Temperature. Use correct pouring temperature.

Shrinkage Cavity
• Shrinkage cavity is a depression or an internal void in a casting
that results from the volume contraction occur during
solidification.
This defect can be removed by applying principle

Uneven or uncontrolled solidification of molten
1 metal. of directional solidification in mold design and
wise use of chills and padding should be done.
2 Pouring temperature is too high. Maintain proper pouring temperature.

Slag Inclusion
• This defect is caused when the molten metal containing slag
particles is poured in the mold cavity and it gets solidifies.
Remove slag particles form the molten metal

1 The presence of slag in the molten metal.
before pouring it into the mold cavity.
Honeycombing or Sponginess
• It is an external defect in which number of small cavities are
present in proximity in the metal casting.
It is caused due to dirt and scurf held

1 Prevent the entry of dirt and scurf in the molten
mechanically in the suspension of the molten
metal.
metal.
Remove slag materials from the molten metal by

2 Due to imperfect skimming in the ladle.
proper skimming in the ladle.
Design of Riser
Design of Riser
• The risers are designed to solidify last to feed enough metal to enough sections of the casting. For this
purpose, they should lose heat at a slower rate.
• The amount of heat content is proportional to the volume of metal and rate of heat dissipation depends
upon the surface area of the riser.
• Hence, for a given size, the riser should be designed with a high volume to surface area ratio. This will
reduce the loss of heat, so that the riser will remain hot and the metal in molten state as long as possible.
• To satisfy this condition the riser is spherical or cylindrical in shape. Rectangular shape, are insufficient
hence they are not used. Similarly, spherical shapes are difficult to mould hence the common shape of riser
is cylindrical.
• The general relation between the height and diameter of riser is,
Height of Cylindrical Riser = 1.5 × Diameter of Riser

Design of Riser
•• Size
of riser:
The freezing time of a riser (casting) depends upon the amount of heat in a casting and surface area of
the casting. To determine the size of riser (casting) the following relations are used:
• Chvorinov's rule: As per Chvorinov's rule the solidification time (freezing time) is a function of the
volume of casting and its surface area. It is given as,
Where,
t = Solidification time in sec; V = Volume of casting in m3; SA = Surface area of casting in m2;
C = Constant that depends on mold material and metal to be cast.

Design of Riser
• As the metal in the riser must be last to solidify, to achieve directional solidification the
following condition must be satisfied:
Generally,
• Since this rule does not consider the solidification contraction or shrinkage, it is not very
accurate.
• This Rule is applicable only for short freezing range alloys like Steel and pure metal.
• It is not suitable for calculating riser size for Non-Ferrous Alloys.

Design of Riser
• Caine’s Rule: As per Caine's rule, to find the riser size, an experimentally determined
hyperbolic relationship between relative freezing times and volumes of the casting and riser
is used.
• The relative freezing time or freezing ratio (X) is given as,
• The volume ratio (Y) is given as,

Design of Riser
• As per Caine’s Rule,
Where,
a = Freezing characteristics constant
b = Liquid to solid solidification contraction
c = Relative freezing rate of riser and casting

Design of Riser
• To find the size of riser for a given casting, the riser diameter and
height are assumed.
• By knowing the values of a, b and c from the standard values, the

values of X and Y can be found out.
• These values of X and Y are plotted on the hyperbolic curve. If

the values of X and Y are above the curve, the assumed size of
riser is correct.
Fig. Caine’s Hyperbolic Curve
• Otherwise, new assumption of riser diameter and height is
made.
Problem 1: A casting of 50 cm x 40 cm x 10 cm size solidifies in 20 min. Find
the solidification time for 40 cm x 30 cm x 5 cm casting under similar
condition.
•• Data:

For, V = 50cm × 40cm × 10cm ; t = 20min
• To Find:
t = ? when V = 40cm × 30cm × 5cm
• Solution:
As per Chvorinov’s Rule,
condition.
•
Case 1:
V = 50cm × 40cm × 10cm = 20000 cm3
SA = 2 × [(50 × 40) + (40 × 10) + (50 × 10)] = 5800 cm2
C = 1.682 min/cm2
condition.
•
Case 2:
V = 40cm × 30cm × 5cm = 6000 cm3
SA = 2 × [(40 × 30) + (30 × 5) + (40 × 5)] = 3100 cm2
t = 6.301 min ………………………………… Ans

Problem 2: A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand casting mould. The size of steel
casting is 7.5cm x 12.5cm x 2cm. The previous observation have indicated that the total
solidification time for casting is 96 sec. The cylindrical riser have (d/h) = 1. Find the size of
riser so that its total solidification time is 120 sec.
•• Data:

For, V = 7.5cm × 12.5cm × 2cm ; t = 96 sec ; (d/h)Riser = 1
• To Find:
Size of cylindrical Riser = ?
• Solution:
As per Chvorinov’s Rule,
• Casting,
For
V = 7.5cm × 12.5cm × 2cm = 187.5 cm3
SA = 2 × [(7.5 × 12.5) + (12.5 × 2) + (7.5 × 2)] = 267.5 cm2
C = 195.396 sec/cm2
For Riser,
(d/h) = 1 …………………….......... [ It is a side riser ]
i.e. h = d = 2r
V Riser = π r 2 h
= πr2(2r)
= 2πr3
SA Riser = 2 π r 2 + 2 π r h
= 2πr2 + 2πr(2r)
= 6πr2
•
r = 2.351 cm
h = d =2r = 2 × 2.351 = 4.702 cm ……………………Ans
Problem 3: Calculate the size of cylindrical riser with d/h ratio as 1 , required to feed a steel
slab casting of 25 x 25 x 5 cm3. Assume the volume shrinkage on solidification as 3 % for steel
and the volume of riser is three times that directed by shrinkage consideration done. .
• Data:
V Casting = 25cm × 25cm × 5cm = 3125 cm3 ;

Volume Shrinkage on Solidification = 3 % of Volume of Casting ;
(d/h)Riser = 1
• To Find:
Size of cylindrical Riser = ?
Solution:
For, V Riser = 3 × Volume on Shrinkage
= 3 × 0.03 × V Casting = 3 × 0.03 × 3125 = 281.25 cm3
(d/h)Riser = 1
i.e. h = d = 2r
V Riser = πr2h = πr2(2r)
281.25 = 2πr3
∴ r = 3.5506 cm
•
Now,
= = = 1.1835 cm
= = 1.7857 cm
∴ <
This is unfavorable condition for sound casting.

• Sound Casting,
For
≥ 1.7857
∴ r ≥ 5.3571 cm
∴ h = d = 2r = 2 × 5.3571 = 10.7142 cm ………………………………… Ans
Corrected Volume of Riser = πr2h = 965.9822 cm3

Module-1 Introduction To Production Process and Metal Castings

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Module-1 Introduction To Production Process and Metal Castings

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Module 1

Input Process Output

• Raw Material • Manual/ • Finished

• It is that process which involves the changes of sizes/ dimensions or

• Transportation or material storage is not a part of the Manufacturing

1. Primary shaping processes 1. Job production

2. Secondary machining processes 2. Batch production

3. Metal forming processes 3. Mass production

5. Surface finishing processes

6. Processes effecting change in properties

1. Primary Shaping Processes : P r i m a r y s h a p i n g p r o c e s s i s u s e d t o g i v e

2. Secondary Machining Processes : M a c h i n i n g i s o n e o f t h e p r o c e s s e s o f

3. Metal forming processes : M e t a l f o r m i n g i s a n o t h e r m a n u f a c t u r i n g t e c h n i q u e

5. Surface finishing Processes : S u r f a c e f i n i s h i n g i s a p r o c e s s w h i c h i s a p p l i e d t o

6. Processes effecting change in properties : D i f f e r e n t p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s a m e

1. Job Production : J o b p r o d u c t i o n i s t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f i n d i v i d u a l ' o n e - o f f '

Examples: Special Purpose Machines, Special Anniversary Cakes,

Example: Cars, Bikes, Newspapers etc.

Example: Nut, Bolts, Chips etc.

The outer casing for motors Hook Engine Block

Molding or Mold Making

Melting and Pouring

• Cast metal is isotropic – it has the same physical/mechanical properties

• It is used for preparing a mold cavity which is used for making a

• It creates the parting line and parting surfaces in the mould.

• Properly constructed patterns minimize overall cost of the casting.

• Properly made pattern having finished and smooth surface reduce

 The selection of pattern material depends on the size of casting, Complexity of

Phenolic resin plastics are commonly used.

 Materials used are blends of several types of waxes and other

 This pattern is adopted for the castings where there

 In such cases, Left & Right-Hand Pattern are used.

Pattern size = casting size ± allowances

• Size and shape of casting

• Degree of finish required

 Machining allowance varies from 3mm to 18mm/ side.

pattern produces the green sand core.

Fig. Dry Sand Core

Fig. Vertical Core

4. Hanging Core: The hanging core is suspended vertically in the

at higher distances from each other, the core will

• Chaplets are designed to provide the support to

casting metal so that it can become an integral

• Some commonly used chaplets are shown in fig.

touching the surface of it.

• To avoid shifting, the weight of the core is increased by embedding steel

• Backing or Floor Sand

• Dry Sand moisture in it.

• Backing or Floor Sand mould.

• Backing or Floor Sand hoppers etc.)

• Dry Sand • It consists of silica sand and clay, without addition of

• Backing or Floor Sand strength.

• Backing or Floor Sand before it is embedded in the moulding sand.

o Unwanted material should not be allowed inside the mould cavity.

o Aspiration of air into mould cavity should be prevented.

o No gating or mould erosion should takes place.

o Enough molten metal should reach the cavity.

• Unfavorable temperature gradient as compared to top gate.

• Higher mould filling time.

• Used for the moulds which are very deep.

Expendable Mold Permanent Mold

2. Machine tool base