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Sed Texture - Copy1
Sed Texture - Copy1
Boulder: >256mm
Cobble: 64-256 mm
Pebble: 4-64 mm
Granule: 2-4mm
Fine gravel
• Krumbein (1934)
introduced a logarithmic
transformation of the
scale.
• φ = -log2 d(mm)
GRAIN PACKING
Line of Traverse
(using microscope) 4 Types of Grain Contacts
Packing Proximity
Tangential Contact A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
are in contact with their
Sutured Contact neighbors
Long Contact Packing Density
Cement
A measure of the extent to
which sedimentary particles
occupy the rock volume
Matrix
Concavo-Convex
(clays, etc.)
Contact
Arrangement of the framework grains within a clastic sedimentary
rock and also the nature of contact between the adjacent grains–
Packing.
It affects porosity & permeability.
When matrix proportion is high, grains float.
Rocks unaffected by solution or pressure, point/ tangential/ long
contact developed.
Solution along with pressure produce sutured contact.
Ratio of grain to grain contact/ total number of grains counted=
Packing proximity
a) Sieving
The later section on grain size distributions will explain the method more
clearly.
Details of the sieving method are given in Appendix I of the course notes.
b) Settling Velocity
Settling velocity (; the lower case Greek letter omega ): the terminal
velocity at which a particles falls through a vertical column of still
water.
Spherical particle
Homogeneous medium
Constancy of settling velocity when fall through medium
Settling velocity should not be too high.
The size class that satisfies this criteria are between 0.15-0.5µm.
A variety of settling tubes have been devised with different means of
determining the rate at which particles fall. Some apply to individual
particles while others use bulk samples.
If the tube is too narrow the particle will be slowed as it settles by the
walls of the tube (due to viscous resistance along the wall).
iii) In the case of tubes designed to measure bulk samples, sample size
must be small enough so that the sample doesn’t settle as a mass of
sediment rather than as discrete particles.
For porous materials this method will underestimate the external volume
of the particle.
c) Based on dimensions of the particle.
d 3
V
Where:d is the diameter of the particle
And the particle is a perfect sphere.
6
Measure the diameter of the particle
and solve for V.
S gd gd 3
3
6 6
S gd 3
6
“submerged
FG S gd 3
'
weight” of the
6 particle.
The net gravity force acting on a particle falling through the fluid.
We now have two forces acting on the falling particle.
F S gd 3 and
G
'
FD 3dU
6
Acting downward, Acting upward,
causing the particle to retarding the settling of
settle. the particle.
What is the relationship between these two forces at the terminal settling
velocity?
'
They are equal: FD = FG
Stoke’s Law is based on this balance of forces.
FD F G
'
F
Where D 3dU and F S
G
'
gd 3
Such that: 3dU S gd 3
6
3 d S gd 3
6
3 d S gd 3
6
Rearranging the terms:
2
1
S gd
3
6 3 d
S gd 2
18
S gd 2
18
Under these conditions (i.e., with the values listed above) Stoke’s Law
reduces to:
8.954 105 d 2
For a 0.0001 m particle: = 8.954 m/s or 9 mm/s
Stoke’s Law has several limitations:
i) It applies well only to perfect spheres (in deriving Stoke’s Law the
volume of spheres was used).
Settling through turbulent waters will alter the rate at which a particle
settles; upward-directed turbulence will decrease whereas downward-
directed turbulence will increase .
iii) It applies to particles 0.1 mm or finer.
iii) It applies to particles 0.1 mm or finer.
Temp.
C Ns/m2 Kg/m3 mm/s
0 1.792 10-3 999.9 5
S gd 2
18
Set d = dS and solve for dS.
18
dS
S g
Phi is the negative of the power to which 2 is raised such that it
equals the dimension in millimetres.
log 2 1(mm) 0 2-0 = 1
With a calculator you can convert You can convert Phi to millimetres:
millimetres to Phi:
i) Histograms
A smooth curve that joins the midpoints of each bar on the histogram.
iii) Cumulative Frequency Curves
Folk and Ward (1957) introduced the Graphic Method to estimate the
various statistical parameters describing a grain size distribution using
only percentiles taken from cumulative frequency curves.
Median Md 50
16 50 84
Mean M
3
84 16 95 5
Standard deviation
4 6.6
84 16 250 95 5 250
Skewness Sk
2 84 16 2 95 5
95 5
Kurtosis K
2.44( 75 25 )
i) Median (Md)
16 = -0.59
Example calculation of the Mean:
16 50 84
Mean M
3
16 = -0.59
50 = 0.35
Example calculation of the Mean:
16 50 84
Mean M
3
16 = -0.59
50 = 0.35
84 = 1.27
Example calculation of the Mean:
16 50 84
Mean M
3
16 = -0.59
50 = 0.35
84 = 1.27
Sk = 0
Perfectly symmetrical.
Md = M
Sk > 0
M is finer than Md
Sk < 0
M is coarser than Md
Terminology: Sk > 0.3 strongly fine skewed
0.1 < Sk < 0.3 fine skewed
-0.1 < Sk < 0.1 near symmetrical
-0.3 < Sk < -0.1 coarse skewed
Sk < -0.3 strongly coarse skewed
v) Kurtosis (K)
K = 1 normal (Mesokurtic)
When drilling wells (oil, gas, water) the most abundant samples are
small pieces of rock called “drill chips”.
Anatomy of a Rotary Drilling Rig
Drill bit:
Boron alloy buttons +/- diamond grit.
Anatomy of a Rotary Drilling Rig
Mud is pumped through the drill
string to the bit; as the mud rises
to the surface it carries “drill
chips” along with it.
Drill Chips:
Samples were collected from rivers and beaches (both lake and ocean
beaches) and Skewness was plotted against Sorting Coefficient.
Beaches tend to have sands that are
better sorted and with more common
coarse tail skewness than river
sands.
The repeated action of the currents washes fine sand from the beach
(improving its sorting) and leaving larger grains behind (causing coarse
tail skewness).
The difference in processes acting on beaches and in rivers results in
distinct differences in their grain size distributions.
The problem is that grain size distribution can be inherited from the
source material that makes up the sediment.
If a beach forms on ancient river sediments then the beach deposits will
inherit characteristics of river deposits.
If a river erodes through ancient beach deposits then its sediment will
bear the characteristics of beach sediments.
In rivers it has been found that, overall, sorting of a sediment improves
with the distance of transport.
From: Gomez, Rosser, Peacock, Hicks and Palmer, 2001, Downstream fining in a rapidly aggrading gravel
bed river. Water Resources Research, v. 37, p. 1813-1823.
Why measure Grain Size?
RW: the ratio of the average radius of curvature of the corners on the
surface of a grain to the radius of curvature of the largest circle that can
be inscribed within the projection of the particle.
RW
r 1 r
N R NR
Where N is the number of corners.
RF: the ratio of the radius of curvature of a particle’s sharpest corner (r)
to the radius of curvature of the largest circle that can be inscribed on
the projection of the particle (R). r
RF
R
c) Power’s visual comparison chart.
The most commonly used method of determining roundness.
: the ratio of the diameter of a sphere with the same volume as the
particle to the volume of a sphere that will circumscribe the particle.
Step 2. Measure the long axis of the particle (dL) as this will be the
diameter of the largest circumscribing sphere.
3
VC d L
6
By this procedure:
VS d L
3 3
6
VS Where VS is the volume of the particle and VC is the
3 volume of the circumscribing sphere.
VC
ii) Approximate VS by assuming that the particle is a triaxial ellipsoid.
3
VS d L d I d S and VC d L
6 6
6
3 dLdI dS 3 2
6 dL
dI dS
3 2
dL
By either method, as approaches 1 the particle approaches a sphere in
overall shape (i.e., for a perfect sphere = 1).
III. Form
Provides a consistent terminology for describing the overall form of
particles.
i) Lithology
For particles that are rock fragments aspects of the lithology of the
source rock can influence shape.
During transport particles interact with each other and with the surface
over which they move.
Shape is modified by grinding, chipping and crushing that takes place
due to this interaction.
The following figure reports data derived from long distance transport of
blocks cut initially as cubes within a circular flume.
Changes in roundness and sphericity for cubes of chert (a very hard rock
type) and softer limestone.
For quartz grains in the size range 2 mm to 0.05 mm, that are transported
in water, the weight loss is <0.1% per 1000 km of transport (the rate is
doubled for feldspars).
For quartz grains finer than 0.05 mm that are transported in water there
is virtually no change in weight with transport.
Why so little change in very fine sand?
Very fine sand, silt and clay particles have very small mass so that they
have little momentum.
During collisions there is little momentum exchanged and, therefore,
little breakage which is required to change the mass and shape of the
grains.
Finally, we’ll see later that particles finer than 0.05 mm are transported
in suspension (floating in the water column), further reducing the
chances of shape-changing collisions.
Air has low density (little buoyant force) and very low viscosity so that
there is more momentum exchanged during collisions.
Rate of weight loss is 100 to 1000 times that when transport is in water.
Time 2: the spheres are preferentially removed as they roll away from
the site due to the current. The remaining particles are largely angular
and the particles down stream are more rounded and spherical.
b) Depositional environments and particle shape
P: the ratio of the maximum projection area of a sphere with volume
equal to the particle to the maximum projection area of the particle.
d S2
P 3
dLdI
Sneed and Folk argued that it was the projection area of a particle that
experienced the viscous drag of moving fluid, therefore it was more
important than the volume of the particle.
1
With increasing sphericity.
c) Corey Shape Factor (SF)
dS
S .F .
dLdI
di
R
dc
b) Sneed and Folk Form Index
Demir, 2003, Downstream changes in bed material size and shape characteristics in a small upland stream:
Cwm Treweryn, in South Wales, Yerbilimleri, v. 28, p. 33-47.
It has been found that, in
general, river gravels are
relatively compact whereas
beach gravels tend to be
more platy or disc-shaped.
As for grain size distribution, it is the processes in the two environments
that differ and lead to the characteristic shapes.
In rivers, gravel rolls along the bottom so that more equant or spherical
shapes are most commonly transported.
On beach faces the swash and backwash may play two rolls in enhancing
the enrichment by disc-shaped particles:
This leads to abrasion of one side and if the waves cause it to flip over
abrasion takes place on the other side, ultimately leading to a disc-
shaped clast.
A river that erodes through ancient beach gravel will have clasts that are
platy in form.
http://www.sandcollectors.org
Porosity and Permeabilty
Both are important properties that are related to fluids in sediment and
sedimentary rocks.
VP VT VG
Porosity varies from 0% to 70% in natural sediments but exceeds 70%
for freshly deposited mud.
Several factors control porosity.
a) Packing Density
Packing density: the arrangement of the particles in the deposit.
The more densely packed the particles the lower the porosity.
e.g., perfect spheres of uniform size.
Porosity varies from 0% to 70% in natural sediments but exceeds 70%
for freshly deposited mud.
Several factors control porosity.
a) Packing Density
Packing density: the arrangement of the particles in the deposit.
The more densely packed the particles the lower the porosity.
e.g., perfect spheres of uniform size.
b) Grain Size
VT VG
P 100
VT
VT dn dn dn d 3n 3
6 6
VT VG 3
Where: VT d n
3 3
P 100 and VG n d
3
VT 6
3
d n n d
3 3 3
Therefore: P 6 100
d 3 n3
d n 1
3 3
Rearranging: P 6 100
d 3 n3
Therefore: P 1 100 48%
6
d (grain size) does not affect the porosity so that porosity is independent
of grains size.
No matter how large or small the spherical grains in cubic packing have
a porosity is 48%.
There are some indirect relationships between size and porosity.
When grains settle through a fluid the large grains will impact the
substrate with larger momentum, possibly jostling the grains into tighter
packing (therefore with lower porosity).
Coarse sand is better rounded and less prone to breakage under load;
therefore the porosity is higher than that of fine sand.
c) Sorting
In general, the better sorted the sediment the greater the porosity.
In well sorted sands fine grains are not available to fill the pore spaces.
This figure shows the relationship between sorting and porosity for
clay-free sands.
Overall porosity decreases with increasing sorting coefficient (poorer
sorting).
The difference is unlikely if clay was also available to fill the pores.
For clay-free sands the silt and fine sand particles are available to fill
the pore space between large grains and reduce porosity.
Because clay is absent less
relatively fine material is not
available to fill the pores of fine
sand.
Therefore the pores of fine sand
will be less well-filled (and have
porosity higher).
d) Post burial changes in porosity.
Freshly deposited mud may have 70% porosity but burial under a
kilometre of sediment reduces porosity to 5 or 10%.
http://www.engr.usask.ca/~mjr347/prog/geoe118/geoe118.022.html
ii) Cementation
Here’s a movie of ce
mentation at Paul Hel
ler’s web site
.
iii) Clay formation
Clay minerals are very fine-grained and may accumulate in the pore
spaces, reducing porosity.
Eocene Whitemud
Formation, Saskatchewan
iv) Solution
Therefore:
10 160, 000
VP
100
16, 000m 3
of oil
II. Permeability (Hydraulic Conductivity; k)
Q
V
A
Q Ap 1 p
V k k
A L A L
1 1
Expanded: V k p
L
1 1
V k p
L
p: this is the driving force behind the flow of fluid through granular
materials.
The greater the change in pressure the greater the rate of flow.
1
: The longer the pathway of the fluid the more pressure is needed to
L
“push” the fluid through the material.
(try drinking a milkshake through a 1 metre long straw!)
There are also controls on permeability that are exerted by the granular
material and are accounted for in the term (k) for permeability:
Along the walls of the pathway the velocity is zero (a no slip boundary)
and increases away from the boundaries, reaching a maximum towards
the middle to the pathway.
Smaller pathways reduce porosity and the size of the pathways so the
more tightly packed the sediment the lower the permeability.
ii) Porosity
The larger and more abundant the pore spaces the greater the
permeability.
The larger the grain size the larger the pore area.
iv) Sorting
Cementation
Clay formation
Compaction
Pressure solution
Fluid that is introduced at the surface will follow a path that is towards the
direction of dip of the beds.
Fabric (preferred orientation of the grains in a sediment) can cause
directional permeability.
The direction along the long axes of grains will have larger pathways
and therefore greater permeability than the direction that is parallel to
the long axes.
Grain Orientation
Why is it important?
The problem with grain size and shape was that they may be inherited
from their source rock.
Particle orientation is achieved at the time of deposition in response to
processes that acted in the environmental setting.
i) Gravel-size material.
Measured in terms of the a-axis (dL), the b-axis (dI) and the plane of
maximum projection (the a-b plane).
Measure the strike and dip of the a-b plane.
Strike will be the trend of the a-axis or the b-axis.
Dip is measured from the plane of
bedding (not the horizontal plane if
the beds are tilted).
The direction is the imbrication direction and the dip angle is the angle
of imbrication.
Can be determined with a microscope from thin sections cut for oriented
specimens.
Can be determined with a microscope from thin sections cut for oriented
specimens.
The thin sections allow the identification of the average a-axis orientation,
whether the a- or b-axes are imbricate and the direction of imbrication.
b) Types of Grain Frabric
Isotropic fabric:
No preferred alignment of
the particles.
a(t)b(i)
a(p)a(i)
Complex fabrics also develop with a mix of a(t)b(i) and a(p)a(i) that may
appear isotropic.
A problem with measuring grain orientation in thin section:
Actually, the distributions are very similar and effectively normal but
this cannot be recognized on such histograms because 0 and 360 are
equal but shown to be at extreme ends of the scale.
Sedimentologists normally display directional data on a rose diagram:
1 1
=1
Rose segments:
Length Proportional Scale Area Proportional Scale
2 1.41
=2
Rose segments:
Length Proportional Scale Area Proportional Scale
3 1.73
=3
Rose segments:
Length Proportional Scale Area Proportional Scale
42
=4
Rose segments:
Length Proportional Scale Area Proportional Scale
5 2.24
=5
Rose segments:
Length Proportional Scale Area Proportional Scale
3 32 = 9 3 3
4 42 = 16 4 4
5 52 = 25 5 5
In a graphical representation of the data the eye sees the area of the
segments.
With a length proportional scale the sense that is given is that an increase
in number of observations from 1 to 5 is 25 times rather than 5 times.
Clearly wrong!
Directional data must be treated as vectors.
Every vector has two parts: direction and magnitude.
Think of a vector as an arrow pointing in some direction ( the lower
case Greek letter theta) and the arrow has a length (R) which is its
magnitude (the longer the arrow the greater the magnitude).
Every directional measurement
is a unit vector; a vector with a The average direction can be
magnitude equal to 1. determined by lining the unit
vectors up end to end and joining
The three directional measurements the beginning and the end.
are represented as:
The “average” vector is termed the
resultant vector ( ).
It points in the average direction of
the data.
In this case:
25.5
R 2.52
The magnitude of the resultant vector depends on the amount of
variation in the directions of the directional observations.
A data set with wide dispersion of A data set with little dispersion of
directions. directions.
Relatively small magnitude of the resultant. Relatively large magnitude of the resultant.
Ungrouped data
Statistics for directional data can be calculated for
both grouped and ungrouped data.
Grouped data
The following outlines the steps to calculate the direction and magnitude
of the resultant vector:
Step 1. Calculate the direction of the resultant vector.
Ungrouped Data Grouped Data
(raw data, values are individual measurements) (number of observations per directional class)
N NC
w ni sin i w ni sin i
i 1 i 1
N NC
v ni cos i v ni cos i
i 1 i 1
pe
1 L2 N 0.0001)
e is the natural logarithm = 2.71828,
N is the total number of measurements in the
data set.
w 7.04
tan 1
tan 1
24.95°
v 15.13
24.95°+180°=204.95°
= 204.95°
R = 16.69
L = 98.17%
p = 7.67 10-8
Class interval Midpoint Frequency
Grouped data:
180-189° 184.5° 2
190-199° 194.5° 3
200-209° 204.5° 6
210-219° 214.5° 4
220-229° 224.5° 2
Note: 10° classes. Total (N): 17
w 7.06
tan 1
tan 1
25.09°
v 15.08
25.09°+180°=205.09°
= 205.09°
R = 16.65
L = 97.95%
p = 8.25 10-8
Ungrouped data results: Grouped data results:
= 204.95° = 205.09°
R = 16.69 R = 16.65
L = 98.17% L = 97.95%
p = 7.67 10-8 p = 8.25 10-8
Slight error in the Grouped Data method because the actual observations
are not used.
c) The Significance of Particle Orientation.