Presentation

on
UTILIZATION AND TRACTION

Department of Electrical Engineering

Madan Mohan Malaviya University of Technology,
Gorakhpur

1
 UNIT-1
Electric Heating

Topic-Advantages and methods of electric heating, Resistance heating, Electric arc

heating, Induction heating, Dielectric heating, Electric Arc Welding, Electric
Resistance welding, Electronic welding control ,Principles of electro deposition, Laws
of electrolysis, applications of electrolysis

 Electric Heating:- Electric heating is the process in which electrical energy is

converted to “HEAT ENERGY”. Electric heating works on the principle of
”JOULE HEATING” (an electric current through a resistor converts electrical
energy into heat energy.)

 Electrical heating is based on the principle of that when electric current passes
through a medium heat is produced. Let us take the case of solid material which has
resistance ‘R’ ohm and Current flowing through it is I amps for ‘t’ seconds than
Heat produced in the material will be
H=I²Rt Joules.

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 DOMESTIC APPLICATION OF
ELECTRICAL HEATING
• Room heater for heating the building
• Immersion heater for water heating
• Hot plates for cooking
• Geysers
• Electric kettles
• Electric Iron
• Electric oven for baking products
• Electric toasters
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION
• Melting of metals
• Electric welding
• Moulding of glass for making glass appliances
• Baking of insulator
• Moulding of plastic components
• Heat treatment processes
• Enamelling of copper wires

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 ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRICAL HEATING
OVER OTHER METHOD OF HEATING

• Clean and atmosphere / Free from dirt.

• No pollution / No flue gas is produced
• Response quickly
• Accurate Controlled temperature can made easily
• Comparatively safe
• Localized application
• Overall efficiency is much higher
• Uniform heating
• Highest efficiency of utilization
• Cheap furnaces
• Better working conditions because absence of irritating noise and radiating losses
are also low

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 PROCESS INVOLVED IN HEATING
TRANSFER OF HEAT
Conduction:- This phenomenon takes place in solid, liquid and gas. Heat transfer is
proportional to the difference of temperatures between two faces. No actual motion of
molecules.

Convection:- This phenomenon takes place in liquid and gas. Heat is transferred due
to actual motion of molecules.

Radiation:- This phenomenon is confined to surfaces. Radiant energy emitted or

absorbed is dependent on the nature of the surface.

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 METHODS OF ELECTRIC HEATING
Power Frequency heating

1.Resistance heating
a. Direct Resistance heating
b.Indirect Resistance heating

2. Arc heating
a. Direct Arc heating
b. Indirect Arc heating
High Frequency heating

1.Induction heating
a.Direct Core type

b.Core less type

2. Dielectric heating
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 CHARACTERISTICS OF HEATING ELEMENTS

1. high resistivity

2. Able to withstand high temperatures without deterioration

3. Low temperature coefficient of resistance

4. Positive temperature coefficient of resistance

5. Free from oxidation at high temperatures

RESISTANCE HEATING
 “This method is based upon the I²R loss. Whenever current is passed through a
resistor material heat is produced because of I²R losses. The generation of heat is
done by electric resistor carrying current”

Example – Electric Water Heater

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 DIREDCT RESISTANCE HEATING

 Electric current is passed through the body (charge) to be heated.

• High efficiency
• Mode of heat transfer is Conduction
Example-
1) Electrode boiler for heating water
2) Resistance Welding

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 INDIRECT RESISTANCE HEATING

 Electric current is passed through highly resistive material(heating element) placed

inside an oven. Heat produced due to I²R loss in the element is transmitted to the
body. Mode of heat transfer is Conduction &/or Convection &/or Radiation.
Example-
1) Room Heaters
2) Domestic & commercial cooking
3) Heat treatment of metals

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 ARC HEATING

 Principle:- When voltage is applied between the two electrodes separated by

small distance in air is increased, a stage is reached when the air gets ionized and
air act like conducting. Hence, current flows between the electrodes in the form of
continuous spark called ARC.

 This self sustained discharge of electricity between 2 electrodes through air is

known as “Electric ARC”.

 An ARC drawn between 2 electrodes has a temperature between 3000 C to 3500 C

depending upon the electrode material.

ARC Heating Types:-

1) Direct ARC heating

2) Indirect ARC heating

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 DIRECT ARC FURNACE

 Direct ARC :- ARC is established between the charge and the electrode. The
heat is directly conducted to the charge. Hence, this method is called Direct
ARC heating.
 This consist of Carbon or Graphite electrode. The power is controlled by
adjusting the ARC length by moving the electrodes manually or automatically.

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 INDIRECT ARC

INDIRECT ARC:
ARC is formed between two electrodes and heat is transmitted to the charge by
radiation. Lower temperature than direct ARC. It Operates at 0.85 P.F. lagging have
to provide rocking motion through a motor to distribute heat uniformly.

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 INDUCTION HEATING

 Metallic bar placed in the copper coil is rapidly heated to high temperatures by
induced currents from the highly concentrated magnetic field.

 Induction method is based on Principle of “Electromagnetic Induction”

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 Conti….

 When alternating Current flows in a conductor it produces alternating flux. If any

other conducting material is placed in this magnetic flux emf gets induced in it.

 This induced emf drives eddy current in that piece and power loss due to eddy
current appears as heat.

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 FACTORS FOR INDUCTION HEATING

 It is proportional to relative permeability. Heating produced in magnetic material is

more than non magnetic material.
 Heating is proportional to MMF Force can be vary by changing current or number
of turns.
 Heating effect can be increased by employing high frequency supply.

DIRECT INDUCTION HEATING

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 Conti….
 This requires very high frequency supply. They are classified as core and coreless
type induction furnaces.

INDIRECT INDUCTION HEATING

 When the primary winding is connected to the supply , the eddy currents gets
induced in the metal container forming the walls of the oven.

 Due to eddy currents, metal container gets heated and then it is transferred to
the charge by radiation.

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 DIELECTRIC HEATING

 Dielectric heating is a special way of transforming electric current into heat. By the
method of dielectric heating, generally, foils, plates and profiles with a thickness of
0,1-2,0 mm is are welded.

 We understand dielectric heating as the generation of thermal energy (heat) in a

nonconducting material by the application of an electromagnetic force or field in it.
This is the way a microwave oven heats things placed in it.

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 ELECTRIC ARC WELDING
 The definition of arc welding is a welding process which is used for welding the
metals with the help of electricity to generate sufficient heat for softening the metal
as well as when the softened metal is cooled then the metals will be welded.

 This kind of welding uses a power supply to make an arc among a metal stick & the
base material to soften the metals at the end of the contact.

ELECTRIC RESISTANCE WELDING

 Resistance welding is that process in which a sufficient strong electric current is

sent through the two metal pieces in contact to the welded which melts the metals
by resistance they offer to the flow of the electric current.

 Electric resistance welding (ERW) is a welding process where metal parts in

contact are permanently joined by heating them with an electric current, melting
the metal at the joint. Electric resistance welding is widely used, for example, in
manufacture of steel pipe and in assembly of bodies for automobiles.

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 Conti….
 The electric resistance welding process can be further classified by the geometry of
the weld and the method of applying pressure to the joint: spot welding, seam
welding, flash welding, projection welding.

SPOT WELDING

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 Conti….
 Spot welding is one form of resistance welding, which is a method of welding two or
more metal sheets together without using any filler material by applying pressure and
heat to the area to be welded.
 The process is used for joining sheet materials and uses shaped copper alloy
electrodes to apply pressure and convey the electrical current through the workpieces.
 In all forms of resistance welding, the parts are locally heated. The material between
the electrodes yields and is squeezed together. It then melts, destroying the interface
between the parts. The current is switched off and the "nugget" of molten materials
solidifies forming the joint. 

 To create heat, copper electrodes pass an electric current through the workpieces. The
heat generated depends on the electrical resistance and thermal conductivity of the
metal, and the time that the current is applied. The heat generated is expressed by the
equation:      

               E=I2*R*t  
where E is the heat energy, I is the current, R is the electrical resistance and t is the time
that the current is applied.  

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 RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING

 A form of resistance welding that uses copper roller electrodes to provide

a continuous run of overlapping spot welds as the current is activated at set
intervals. One of the electrodes may be driven by an electric motor.

 The workpiece is moved between the rollers and pulses of current are supplied.

Each pulse is set to last long enough to produce a spot weld. The time interval is
controlled so that these spots overlap by approx. 40% of their length along the
seam.
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 FLASH WELDING

 Flash welding is a type of resistance welding that does not use any filler metals.
The pieces of metal to be welded are set apart at a predetermined distance based on
material thickness, material composition, and desired properties of the finished
weld. Current is applied to the metal, and the gap between the two pieces
creates resistance and produces the arc required to melt the metal.

 Once the pieces of metal reach the proper temperature, they are pressed together,
effectively forge welding them together.
01/18/22 22
 PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRO DEPOSITION

 It is a process of coating a thin layer of one metal on top of a different metal to

modify its surface properties, by donating electrons to the ions in a solution.

 This bottom-up fabrication technique is versatile and can be applied to a wide range
of potential applications.

 Electrodeposition is gaining popularity in recent years due to its capability in

fabricating one-dimensional nano structures such as nano rods, nano wires and
nano tubes.
LAWS OF ELECTROLYSIS
 Michael Faraday reported that the quantity of elements separated by passing an
electric current through a molten or dissolved salt is proportional to the quantity of
electric charge passed through the circuit.

 This became the basis of the first law of electrolysis. The mass of the substance (m)
deposited or liberated at an electrode is directly proportional to the quantity of
electricity or charge (Q) passed.
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 APPLICATIONS OF ELECTROLYSIS

• Manufacture of heavy water

• Non-metals like hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine are obtained by electrolysis.
• Non-metals like hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine are obtained by electrolysis

01/18/22 24
 UNIT –II
Illumination

TOPIC-Various definitions, Laws of illumination, requirements of good lighting,

Design of indoor lighting and outdoor lighting systems, Refrigeration systems,
domestic refrigerator, water cooler, Types of air conditioning, Window air conditioner

ILLUMINATION

 Illumination- When light falls on a surface, it becomes visible, the phenomenon is

called as illumination. It is defined as luminous flux falling on a surface per unit
area. It is denoted by E and measured in lumen per square meter or meter ‐ candle.

E = Ф / A lux

ELECTRICAL LIGHTING

 An electric light is a device that produces visible light from electric current. It is

the most common form of artificial lightning and is essential to modern
society, providing interior lighting for buildings and exterior light for evening
and night time activities.
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 SOME REQUIREMENTS OF GOOD LIGHTING ARE:-
 Distribution.
 Absence of glare.
 Absence of sharp shadows.
 Steadiness.
 Color of light.
 Surroundings.
 Angle of light.

TERMS USED IN ILLUMINATION

 Light
 Luminous Flux
 Luminous Intensity
 Illumination

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 LIGHT
 Light is a form of electromagnetic energy, that part of radiant energy from a hot
body which produced the visual sensation on human eye is called light.

 Light can be of different colours, which depend on the wavelength of radiation

causing it.
LUMINOUS FLUX

 To measure light, it is necessary to measure its flux (rate of flow) The total
quantity of radiant energy per second responsible for visual sensation from a
luminous body is called Luminous Flux.
or
 Rate of flow of radiant energy Measured in lumens.
LUMINOUS INTENSITY
 Intensity of emission of luminous flux in that direction is the luminous intensity.

 It is denoted by I and its unit is candela or candle power (CP) .

 Luminous intensity of source in a particular direction, I = φ / ω

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 DESIGN OF INDOOR LIGHT SCHEME
When designing indoor lighting for energy efficiency, consider some basic design
principles and methods:-
Energy-efficient lighting design principles include the following:

More light is not necessarily better: light quality is as important as quantity

Match the amount and quality of light to the performed function
Install task lights where needed and reduce ambient light elsewhere
Use energy-efficient lighting components, controls, and systems
Maximize the use of daylighting.
Here are some basic methods for achieving energy-efficient indoor lighting:
Install fluorescent or LED light fixtures for all ceiling- and wall-mounted fixtures
that will be on for more than 2 hours each day, such as kitchen and living room,
bathroom, hallway, and other higher-demand locations.
Consider installing fluorescent or LED fixtures, rather than using fluorescent or LED
replacement lamps in incandescent fixtures.
Use CFLs or LEDs in portable lighting fixtures that are operated for more than 2
hours a day.

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 OUTDOOR LIGHTING DESIGN
When designing outdoor lighting, consider the purpose of the lighting along with basic
methods for achieving energy efficiency.
Outdoor lighting for homes generally serves one or more of three purposes:-
Aesthetics: Illuminate the exterior of the house and landscape
Security: Illuminate the grounds near the house or driveway
Utility: Illuminate the porch and driveway to help people navigate safely to and from
the house.
Here are some basic methods for achieving energy-efficient outdoor lighting:

Security and utility lighting does not need to be bright to be effective.

Use LED or fluorescent lights unless incandescent lights are automatically controlled
to be on for just a few minutes each day.
Consider flood lights with combined photosensors and motion sensors in the place of
other security lighting options.
Make sure outdoor light fixtures have reflectors, deflectors, or covers to make more
efficient use of the light source and help reduce light pollution.
Use timers and other controls to turn decorative lighting on and off.
Use outdoor solar lighting where applicable.
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 REFRIGERATION SYSTEMS
 The term refrigeration means cooling a space, substance or system to lower and/or
maintain its temperature below the ambient one (while the removed heat is rejected
at a higher temperature).

 In other words, refrigeration is artificial (human-made) cooling.

 Energy in the form of heat is removed from a low-temperature reservoir and

transferred to a high-temperature reservoir. 

 The work of energy transfer is traditionally driven by mechanical means, but can

also be driven by heat, magnetism, electricity, laser, or other means.

 Refrigeration has many applications, including household refrigerators,

industrial freezers, cryogenics, and air conditioning.
  Heat pumps may use the heat output of the refrigeration process, and also may be
designed to be reversible, but are otherwise similar to air conditioning units.

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 DOMESTIC REFRIGERATOR
 The domestic refrigerator is a heat pump which throws the heat of the foods or stuff
to be cool to the atmosphere by taking the power of a compressor.

 The second law of thermodynamics with its Clausius statement suggests, to throw
heat from low temperature to high temperature, one must put extra efforts in the
form of work. The same is done by the compressor in the domestic refrigerator.

 The domestic refrigerator works on 'Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle

(VCRC).

CONSTRUCTION OF DOMESTIC REFRIGERATOR

 The vapor compression cycle consists of 'Evaporator', 'Compressor', 'Condenser' and

'Capillary tube' as main parts.
 The system works on closed cyclic operation with the help of heat transfer media
called 'refrigerant’.
 This refrigerant changes the phase during passing through evaporator and condenser
to exchange the heat.
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 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF DOMESTIC REFRIGERATOR
 The function of the compressor is to raise the pressure of gaseous refrigerant coming
from the evaporator.
 By raising the pressure, the boiling point of the refrigerant increases. This high
pressure and high-temperature refrigerant while passing through the condenser
changes the phase and condenses in high pressure and temperature liquid refrigerant.
 The room air is at the lower temperature than the refrigerant passing through the
condenser, hence condensation takes place and vapor refrigerant converted to liquid
refrigerant. 
 As the high-pressure liquid refrigerant passes through the capillary tube, due to
throttling effect, temperature and pressure of the refrigerant decrease.
 Majority of the cooling is produced at this point in a refrigerator. This low
temperature and low-pressure refrigerant now pass through the evaporator where
refrigerant in liquid phase takes heat from foods and stuff.
 At this point, the boiling point of liquid refrigerant is very low (because of low
pressure) in terms of -20 degree C.
 Thus anything above this temperature makes refrigerant to boil. This low-pressure
vapor again circulated to compressor and cycle continuously as long as the
compressor is in running conditions.

01/18/22 32
 TYPES OF AIR CONDITIONING
CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING:- 
This is the most common type of cooling system as it is the most preferable for larger
homes due to its ability to cool efficiently. Central air conditioners circulate cool air
through supply and return ducts. Supply ducts and registers, which are in the wall or
floors, carry cooled air into the home. Then, once the air becomes warm it circulates
back into the supply ducts and registers where it will then be transported back to the air
conditioner.
DUCTLESS, MINI-SPLIT AIR CONDITIONER:-
Ductless, mini-split systems are most common in parts of the home that have been
retrofitted. Like central air conditioning systems, these systems have an outdoor
compressor/condenser and an indoor handling unit.
WINDOW AIR CONDITIONER:-
Think of a window air conditioner as a compact unit, cooling only one particular room.
Also known as a “unitary unit,” this system is installed in the window of room Window
units cool a room be emitting the warm air out the back of it and blowing cool air into it.
These types of units are best for those who live in small spaces.
PORTABLE AIR CONDITIONER:-
Portable air conditioners are considered as the next generator of window units. This type
of air conditioning unit takes in air from the room and cools it, then directs it back into
the room.
01/18/22 33
HYBRID AIR CONDITIONERS:-
 Like hybrid cars, hybrid heat pump systems alternate between burning fossil fuels and using electricity
to run.
 The system intelligently chooses between the two energy sources in order to save money and energy.
 GEOTHERMAL HEATING & COOLING:-
 Geothermal energy is sustainable, energy-efficient, and has a long lifespan. Since the ground
temperature below us remains a fairly consistent 55 degrees no matter how hot or cold it is in the
atmosphere, geothermal technology is able to extract the heat from below and transfer it into your
home.

WINDOW AIR CONDITIONERS 

 Window air conditioner (WAC) is a type of AC that's installed into a window of a

room and designed to cool that specific room. An evaporator coil cools the interior
while a condenser coil releases hot air outside. Window air conditioners work by
removing both heat and humidity, in addition some models can heat a room.

 Window air conditioner is a most economical choice for cooling. It is much easier
to install than high-wall or central air conditioner. Room air conditioners can also be
built into the wall for a more permanent installation.
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 WATER COOLER
 A water dispenser, known as water cooler (if used for cooling only), is
a machine that cools or heats up and dispenses water with a refrigeration unit.

 It is commonly located near the restroom due to closer access to plumbing. A drain
line is also provided from the water cooler into the sewer system.

 Water dispensers come in a variety of form factors, ranging from wall-mounted to

bottle filler water dispenser combination units, to bi-level units and other formats.

 They are generally broken up into two categories: point-of-use (POU) water
dispensers and bottled water dispensers.

 POU water dispensers are connected to a water supply, while bottled water
dispensers require delivery (or self-pick-up) of water in large bottles from vendors.
Bottled water dispensers can be top-mounted or bottom-loaded, depending on the
design of the model.

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Thank You

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