Theoretical Perspectives in

Counseling
Unit 3
Why do we need a theoretical perspective?
1. Theory helps counselors find unity and relatedness within the diversity of existence.
2. Theory compels counselors to examine relationships they would otherwise overlook.
3. Theory gives counselors operational guidelines by which to work and helps them
evaluate their development as professionals.
4. Theory helps counselors focus on relevant data and tells them what to look for.
5. Theory helps counselors assist clients in the effective modification of their behavior.
6. Theory helps counselors evaluate both old and new approaches to the process of
counseling. It is the base from which new counseling approaches are constructed.
Counseling Theories,
perspectives,approaches and techniques
1. Psychoanalytic Theory
2. Behavioral Theory
3. Cognitive Theory
4. Humanistic Theory
Psychoanalytic
Theory
Also known as directive/counselor
centered Counseling, as counselor
directs the client to do what she/he feels
can help in solving client’s issues.

Id

Ego

Superego
Psychoanalytic
Theory
1. Id (comprised of amoral basic instincts, which
operates according to the pleasure principle)

2. Ego (the conscious, decision-making

“executive of the mind,” which operates
according to the reality principle)

3. Superego (it contains the values of parental

figures and that operates according to the moral
principle)
Psychoanalytic Theory of counseling
The Role of Counselor: The analyst’s role is to let clients gain insight by reliving
and working through the unresolved past experiences that come into focus during
sessions.
Counseling Goals: The goals of psychoanalysis vary according to the client, but
they focus mainly on personal adjustment, usually inducing a reorganization of
internal forces within the person.
Basic Psychoanalytic Defense Mechanisms
Psychoanalytic Techniques
1. Free Association. In free association, the client abandons the normal way of censoring
thoughts by consciously repressing them and instead says whatever comes to mind, even if
the thoughts seem silly, irrational, suggestive, or painful.
2. Dream Analysis. Freud believed that dreams were a main avenue to understanding the
unconscious, even calling them “the royal road to the unconscious.”
3. Transference Analysis: Transference is the client’s response to a counselor as if the
counselor were some significant figure in the client’s past, usually a parent figure. The analyst
encourages this transference and interprets the positive or negative feelings expressed.
4. Analysis of Resistance. Sometimes clients initially make progress while undergoing
psychoanalysis and then slow down or stop. Their resistance to the therapeutic process may
take many forms, such as missing appointments, being late for appointments, not paying
fees, persisting in transference, blocking thoughts during free association, or refusing to recall
dreams or early memories.
5. Interpretation. Interpretation should be considered part of the techniques we have already
examined and complementary to them. When interpreting, the counselor helps the client
understand the meaning of past and present personal events.
Strengths and Contributions
The approach emphasizes the importance of sexuality and the unconscious in human behavior. Before this theory
came into being, sexuality (especially childhood sexuality) was denied, and little attention was paid to unconscious
forces.

• The approach lends itself to empirical studies; it is heuristic. Freud’s proposals have generated a tremendous
amount of research.
The approach provides a theoretical base of support for a number of diagnostic instruments. Some psychological
tests, such as the Thematic Apperception Test or the Rorschach Ink Blots, are rooted in psychoanalytic theory.
• Psychoanalysis continues to evolve and most recently has emphasized adaptive processes and social relations.

• The approach appears to be effective for those who suffer from a wide variety of disorders, including hysteria,
narcissism, obsessive-compulsive reactions, character disorders, anxiety, phobias, and sexual difficulties
(Luborsky, O’Reilly-Landry, & Arlow, 2008).
• The approach stresses the importance of developmental growth stages.
Limitations
The classical psychoanalytic approach is time-consuming and expensive. A person who undergoes
psychoanalysis is usually seen three to five times a week over a period of years (Bankart, 1997; Nye, 2000).
The approach does not seem to lend itself to working with older clients or even a large variety of clients.
“Patients benefiting most from analysis” are mainly “middle-aged men and women oppressed by a sense of
futility and searching for meaning in life” (Bradley & Cox, 2001, p. 35).
• The approach has been claimed almost exclusively by psychiatry, despite Freud’s wishes. Counselors and
psychologists without medical degrees have had a difficult time getting extensive training in psychoanalysis.
The approach is based on many concepts that are not easily communicated or understood—the id, ego,
and superego, for instance. Psychoanalytical terminology seems overly complicated.
• The approach is deterministic. For instance, Freud attributed certain limitations in women to be a result of
gender—that is, of being female.
• The approach does not lend itself to the needs of most individuals who seek professional counseling. The
psychoanalytic model has become associated with people who have major adjustment difficulties or want or
need to explore the unconscious.
Humanistic Approach
Founder: Carl Rogers (1902–1987) is the person most identified with person-
centered counseling.
Non-directive Counseling:
It adopts a holistic approach to human existence and pays special attention to
such phenomena as creativity, free will, and human potential. It encourages
viewing ourselves as a “whole person” greater than the sum of our parts and
encourages self exploration rather than the study of behaviour in other people.
Goals of Humanistic
Approach

The aim of humanistic therapy is to help the client develop a stronger, healthier sense of
self, as well as access and understand their feelings to help gain a sense of meaning in
life. Humanistic theory aims to help the client reach what Rogers and Maslow referred to
as self actualization —the final level of psychological development that can be achieved
when all basic and mental needs are essentially fulfilled and the “actualization” of the full
personal potential take place. Humanistic therapy focuses on the individual’s strengths
and offers nonjudgmental counselling sessions.
 Assumptions of Humanistic Approach
Experiencing (thinking, sensing, perceiving, feeling, remembering, and so on) is central.
The subjective experience of the individual is the primary indicator of behaviour. An accurate
understanding of human behaviour cannot be achieved by studying animals.
Free will exists, and individuals should take personal responsibility for self-growth and
fulfilment.
Not all behaviour is determined.
Self-actualization (the need for a person to reach maximum potential) is natural.
People are inherently good and will experience growth if provided with suitable conditions,
especially during childhood.
Each person and each experience is unique, so psychologists should treat each case
individually, rather than rely on averages from group studies.
 Key components of
Humanistic Approach
phenomenological perspective:What is important is the
person’s perception of reality rather than an event itself
(Rogers, 1955).
positive regard—love, warmth, care, respect, and
acceptance.
ideal self -what the person is striving to become.
real self-what the person is.
self-actualization, the process of realizing and
expressing one’s own capabilities, and creativity.
Empathy: Rogerian therapists attempt to develop an
empathic understanding of their clients' thoughts and
feelings.
Congruence: Rogerian therapists strive for congruence;
that is, being self-aware, genuine, and authentic in their
interactions with clients
The Role of Counsellor

The counselor is aware of the client’s verbal and

nonverbal language, and the counselor reflects
back what he or she is hearing or observing
(Braaten, 1986). Neither the client nor the
counselor knows what direction the sessions will
take or what goals will emerge in the process. The
client is a person in process who is “entitled to
direct his or her own therapy” (Moon, 2007, p.
277). Thus, the counselor trusts the client to
develop an agenda on which he or she wishes to
work. The counselor’s job is to work as a facilitator
rather than a director. In the person-centered
approach, the counselor is the process expert
and expert learner (of the client). Patience is
essential (Miller, 1996).
Techniques
For person-centered therapists, the quality of the counseling relationship is much more
important than techniques (Glauser & Bozarth, 2001). Rogers (1957) believed there are
three necessary and sufficient (i.e., core) conditions of counseling:

1. empathy,

2. unconditional positive regard (acceptance, prizing), and

3. congruence (genuineness, openness, authenticity, transparency).

 Strengths
The person-centered approach to counseling is applicable to a wide range of human
problems, including institutional changes, labor–management relationships, leadership
development, career decision making, and international diplomacy.
• The approach has generated extensive research (Tursi & Cochran, 2006). It initially set the
standard for doing research on counseling variables, especially those that Rogers (1957)
deemed “necessary and sufficient” to bring about therapeutic change.
• The approach is effective in a number of settings. Person-centered counseling helps
improve psychological adjustment, learning, and frustration tolerance and decrease
defensiveness.
The person-centered approach may be especially helpful in working with clients who have
experienced tragedies since it allows them “to struggle through emotions and actually become
less affected in time by fully realizing feelings related to the tragedies” (Tursi &Cochran, 2006,
p. 395).
The approach has a positive view of human nature and it continues to evolve.
 Limitations of Humanistic Approach
The approach may be too simplistic, optimistic, leisurely, and unfocused for clients in crisis or
who need more structure and direction (Seligman & Reichenberg, 2014; Tursi & Cochran,
2006).
• The approach depends on bright, insightful, hard-working clients for best results. It has limited
applicability and is seldom employed with the severely disabled or young children Henderson &
Thompson, 2016).
• The approach ignores diagnosis, the unconscious, developmental theories, and innately
generated sexual and aggressive drives. Many critics think it is overly optimistic.
• The approach deals only with surface issues and does not challenge the client to explore
deeper areas. Because person-centered counseling is short term, it may not make a permanent
impact on the person.
• The approach is more attitudinal than technique-based. It is void of specific techniques to
bring about client change (Moon, 2007).
 Cognitive
Behavioural
Approach
Cognitive The CBT approach focuses on the clients’ ways of thinking
and behaving, as well as the relationship between their
Behavioral thoughts, their actions/reactions, and how they feel.

Approach CBT can be good for anyone who needs support to

challenge unhelpful thoughts that are preventing them from
reaching their goals or living the life they want to live.

CBT aims to show you how your thinking affects your

mood. It teaches you to think in a less negative way about
yourself and your life. It is based on the understanding that
thinking negatively is a habit that, like any other habit, can
be broken.
Cognitive Distortions
Cognitive
Distortions
Usefulness of CBT
● anxiety
● anxiety disorders such as social phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder or post-traumatic stress disorder
● depression
● low self-esteem
● irrational fears
● hypochondria
● substance misuse, such as smoking, drinking or other drug use
● problem gambling
● eating disorders
● insomnia
● marriage or relationship problems
● certain emotional or behavioural problems in children or teenagers.
CBT
he main focus of CBT is that thoughts, feelings and behaviours combine to influence a person’s quality of life. For example,
severe shyness in social situations (social phobia) may come from the person thinking that other people will always find
them boring or stupid. This belief could cause the person to feel extremely anxious in social situations.

This could lead to certain behaviour in social situations, such as trembling, sweating, accelerated heart rate or other
uncomfortable symptoms. The person could then feel overwhelmed with negative emotions (such as shame) and negative
self-talk (‘I’m such an idiot’). Their fear of social situations could become worse with every bad experience.

CBT aims to teach people that it is possible to have control over their thoughts, feelings and behaviours. CBT helps the
person to challenge and overcome automatic beliefs, and use practical strategies to change or modify their behaviour. The
result is more positive feelings, which in turn lead to more positive thoughts and behaviours.
 Cognitive Therapy

The aim of cognitive therapy is to change the way a person thinks about an
issue that’s causing concern. Negative thoughts cause self-destructive feelings
and behaviours. For example, someone who thinks they are unworthy of love
or respect may feel withdrawn in social situations and behave shyly. Cognitive
therapy challenges those thoughts and provides the person with healthier
strategies.
Behavioural Therapy
The aim of behaviour therapy is to teach the person techniques or
skills to alter their behaviour. For example, a person who behaves
shyly at a party may have negative thoughts and feelings about
themselves. They may also lack social skills.
 Treatment with this approach
● assessment – this may include filling out questionnaires to help you describe your particular problem and pinpoint
distressing symptoms. You will be asked to complete forms from time to time so that you and your therapist can plot your
progress and identify problems or symptoms that need extra attention
● personal education – your therapist provides written materials (such as brochures or books) to help you learn more about
your particular problem. The saying ‘knowledge is power’ is a cornerstone of CBT. A good understanding of your particular
psychological problem will help you to dismiss unfounded fears, which will help to ease your anxiety and other negative
feelings
● goal setting – your therapist helps you to draw up a list of goals you wish to achieve from therapy (for example, you may
want to overcome your shyness in social settings). You and your therapist work out practical strategies to help fulfil these
goals
● practise of strategies – you practise your new strategies with the therapist.
● homework – you will be expected to actively participate in your own therapy. You are encouraged to use the practical
strategies you have practised during the course of your daily life and report the results to the therapist.