Perpetuation of

Life

ELSC LESSON 6
MR. LENARD J. VILLAMOR LPT
 Plant Reproduction

The reproduction of plants is important for
the propagation of life on earth.
 Plants reproduce through three types:
asexual, sexual, and vegetative.
 Asexual Reproduction
 In the asexual mode of 
reproduction, offspring's
are produced from the
vegetative unit produced
by a parent without any
fusion of sex cells or
gametes.
 In addition to this, only a
single parent is involved
and the offspring produced
are genetically identical to
the parent.
 There are also several types
of asexual reproduction
 Fission can be seen in

unicellular organisms such as
yeast or bacteria. The content
of the parent cell divides into
2, 4, or 8 daughter cells.
 Accordingly, fission may be
called binary (2) or multiple (4
or more).
 Each daughter cell that is
newly formed grows into a
new organism.
 Budding

 Budding is bud-like growth
formed on one side of the
parent cell.
 As soon as the bud
separates from the parent
cell, it becomes a whole
new organism (e.g. yeast).
 Fragmentation

 Fragmentation occurs in
filamentous algae.
 It occurs as a result of
accidentally breaking off a
filament into many fragments.
 Each new fragment may give
rise to a new organism
through cell division (e.g.
Spirogyra).
 Spore

 Spore formation occurs in lower
plants, such as pteridophytes and
byrophytes.
 During this type of asexual
reproduction, special reproductive
units develop asexually on the
body of the parent.
 These special reproductive units
are called spores.
 Once spores reach an environment
that is conducive to growth, they
develop into new plant bodies (e.g.
bread molds, mosses, ferns).
 Vegetative Reproduction
 Vegetative reproduction
involves the formation of
new plants from a somatic, or
vegetative cell, or buds or
organs of the plant.
 Here, a vegeatitive part of
the plant, such as the root,
stem, leaf, or bud, is detached
from the body of the parent
and grows into a daughter
plant that is independent.
 Vegetative Reproduction
 It is similar to asexual

reproduction in that it only
requires mitotic division.
 Thus, no gametes fusion
occurs and daughter
plants are exact genetic
copies of their parents.
 Sexual Reproduction

 Sexual reproduction involves
the fusion of female and male
reproductive cells (gametes).
 These gametes are haploid,
which means that they
contain only half the genetic
material (chromosomes) for a
new organism to exist.
 The fusion of gametes is also
called fertilization and it
results in the production of
diploid zygote.
 Sexual Reproduction
 When the zygote

undergoes further
development, it gives rise
to a new individual that is
diploid.
 At the beginning stages of
sexual reproduction,
meiosis occurs.
 The offsprings are not
genetically identical to
their parents.
 Reproduction in Lower
Plants

 Two representative plants that are considered
lower plants are Spirogyra (multicellular) and
Chlamydomonas (unicellular).
 Chlamydomonas
 The unicellular algae,

Chlamydomonas, is a haploid,
unicellular algae that is found in
freshwater ponds.
 The plant’s body is pear-
shaped, and there are two
flagella attached to the narrow
end.
 Flagella are filaments found in
flagellates.
 A large chloroplast is present.
 Spirogyra

 Spirogyra is a free-floating
algae found in freshwater
ponds.
 The body contains a row of
rectangular cells that are joined
end to end (filamentous alga).
 Each cell has a sparial ribbon-
shaped chloroplast that
contains many pyrenoids.
 The nucleus is present in the
cental vacuole with support
from cytoplasmic strands.
 Reproduction in Angiosperms
(Flowering Plants)

 Angiosperms may reproduce
vegetative or sexually.
 Sexual reproduction occurs by
the fusion of male and female
gametes that are present in the
flower.
 Thus, the plant’s basic
reproductive unit is the flower.
 Angiosperms can be classified
according to the following:

Annuals: these plants
live for only one year.
The plants that produce
seeds and flowers
within just one season
are termed as annuals
(e.g. peas).
 Biennials

 Plants that live for two
seasons, and complete their
life cycles within these two
seasons.
 During the first year, the
plant is in a vegetative state.
In the second year, the
plants produce flowers,
fruits, or seeds and then
they perish (e.g. radish).
 Perennials

Plants that live for several
years.
The vegetative state of
these plants may last from
one year to several years.
In the year following their
vegetative state, they
produce flowers, seeds, or
fruits (e.g. mangoes).
 Monocarpic

 Perennial plants that
reproduce only once during
their lifetime and then die (e.g.
bamboo).
Initiation of Flowering

When the plant’s seed germinates,
plantlets emerge from it. The young plant
grows and continues to grow until it has a
definite shape and size.
The plant’s vegetative parts (root, stem,
leaves) must be well-developed.
This phase in the plant’s life cycle is known
as the young of juvenile phase.
Initiation of Flowering

After the plant completes vegetative
growth, the plant then enters into the
reproductive phase, or the adult phase.
 A vegetative shoot apex then transforms
into a floral apex, a reproductive part, and
starts bearing flowers.
The flowering stage may last from several
days to several years.
Factors Affecting Flowering

 The plant’s flowering is affected by light
(photoperiodism) and by temperature
(vernalisation).
 Vernasilation is when low temperatures occur,
and this stimulates the early formation of flowers.
 On the other hand, photoperiodic is the response
of the plant to the duration of dark and light per
day.
 This determines its growth and flowering.
 Parts of a Flower

 A typical flower consists of four whorls which are
located on a stalk (thalamus).
 Sepals comprise the calyx. Petals comprise the
corolla.
 Additionally, stames comprise the androecium
and pistils (gynoecium) consists of carpels.
 The two outer whorls are known as non-
essential or accessory whorls because they do
not play a part in the plant’s reproduction,
although they aid indirecty..
Stamen, Microsporagia,
and Pollen
 Grain
 The plant’s stamen consists of an anther that
contains microsporagia, or four pollen sacs.
 These supported by a slender filament.
 Each sporangium contains masses of large cells.
 These cells show a prominent nucleus and
abundant cytoplasm.
 These cells are also known as the sporangeous or
the microspore mother cells.
Stamen, Microsporagia,
and Pollen
 Grain
 Each microsporangium is madeup of a distinct layers
of cells when mature.
 The outer most layer is the epidermis. It has a middle
layer of cells with thin walls.
 The innermost layer is the tapetum, which consists of
large cells.
 The tapetum nourishes the developing grains of
pollen.
 Microspore mother cells undergo meiosis.
 Each mother cell produces four haploid microspores
(diploid pollen grains) that are arranged in a tetrad.
 The Development of
the Male Gametophyte

 The wall of the microspore consists of two
principal layers.
 The outer layer is the exine and thin spaces (germ
pores).
 The exine is made up of a durable substance
called sporopollenin.
 The pollen tube grows out of the pollen grain
through the germ pores.
 The Development of
the Male Gametophyte

 The inner layer is the cellulosic wall (the intine).
 The microspore moves towards the periphery.
 The cell then divides into a small generative cell and
a large vegetative cell.
 At this stage, the pollens are released by the rupture
of the stodium dehiscence of the anther.
 The pollen grain itself is not a male gamete.
 Rather, it produces the male gamete and is therefore
a male gametophyte.
 The Development of the
Female Gametophyte

The main part of the ovule is bounded by
two coverings (integuments).
These integuments leave behind a small
aperture, or opening.
 The ovule is attached to the ovary via a
stalk, known as the furniclus.
The basal part of this structure is the
chalaza.
 The Development of the
Female Gametophyte

 The female gamete’s gynoecium (pistil) represents its
reproductive part.
 Each pistil is composed of a stigma, ovary, and style.
 The ovary contains one or more ovules (megasporangia),
which act as future seeds.
 An ovule develops as a type of projection from the
placenta in the ovary.
 It consists of integuments and nuclei.
 As the ovule grows, it becomes raised on the stalk,
termed as furniculus. This is attached to the placenta on
the other end.
 Vegetative Reproduction
in Angiosperms

 The natural method of the vegetative
reproduction of angiosperms starts with the
underground modification of stems, such as in
ginger, potato, onion, and corn.
 These are provided with buds which develop into
a new plant and are therefore used to carry out
vegetative propagation of the plant in the filed.
 Plants with sub aerial modification, such as
chrysanthemum and pistil, are also used for
vegetative propagation.
 Animal Reproduction
 Animal reproduction is

the process by which
animals propagate on
earth and it is also the
process through which
genetic materials are
transferred to offspring.
 Animals, like plants,
may reproduce through
asexual or sexual
means.
 Asexual Reproduction

 Asexual reproduction is primarily
employed by turnicates, protists,
and cnidaria.
 However, it may also occur in the
more complex animal species.
 Indeed, the formation of identical
twins by the separation of two
identical cells in the early embryo
is a form of asexual reproduction.
 Through mitosis, genetically
identical cells are produced from
one parent cell.
 Asexual Reproduction

 This permits asexual reproduction
to occur in protists by the
organism’s division, called fission.
 Cnidaria commonly reproduce by
budding, which is when a part of
the parent’s body is separated
from the rest and differentiates
into a new organism.
 The new organism may become
independent, or it may remain
attached to the parent organism,
forming a colony.
 Sexual reproduction

 Sexual reproduction occurs
when a new individual is
formed from the union of
two sex cells, or gametes.
 Gamates include the sperm
and the egg.
 The union of these two
produces a fertilized egg,
or zygote.
 Zygote

 Through mitotic division, the
zygote develops into a new
organism.
 The zygote and the cells that
it forms are diploid. This
means that they contain both
members of each pair of
homologous chromosomes.
 The gametes are formed in
the sex organs, or gonads
(the testes and the ovaries),
and are haploid.
 Gametogenesis
The process of sperm

formation
(spermatogenesis)
and egg formation
(oogenesis) are also
included in the study
of the reproduction of
animals.
 Different Approaches to
Sex

Virgin birth, or parthenogenesis, is
common in many species of arthropods.
Some species are exclusively
parthenogenic (all female), while others
switch between generation.
 Hermaphroditism

 Another variation in the
reproductive strategies used by
animals is hermaphroditism.
 This is the case when one
individual has both testes and
ovaries.
 Tapeworms are hermaphroditic,
and it is able to fertilize itself.
 However, most hermaphroditic
animals require another
organism to reproduce, such as
in the case of two earthworms.
 Hermaphroditism

 There are also some deep sea
fish which are
hermaphrodites, meaning that
they are both male and
female at the same time.
 Numerous species of fish can
change their sex, a process
which is called sequential
hermaphroditism.
 The change from female to
male is protogyny, while the
change from male to female is
protandry.
 Sex Determination

 In fish, there are conditions
which cause changes in sex.
In mammals, however, sex
is already determined early
in embryonic development.
 The reproductive systems of
both males and females
(humans) are identical
during the first 40 days of
embryonic development.
 Sex Determination

 During this time, the cells that will give rise to
either ova or sperm move from the yolk sac to the
embryonic gonads.
 These gonads can become testes in males and
ovaries in females.
 For this reason, embryonic gonads are said to be
indifferent.
 If the embryo is a male, it will posses a Y
chromosome. If the embryo is a female, it will have
no Y chromosomes.
 Fertilization and
Development

 There are two types of fertilization: internal and
external.
 External fertilization commonly occurs among
organisms in the ocean, where water allows for
the rapid dispersion of sperm or ova towards
others of the same species.
 On the other hand, internal fertilization is
common in terrestrial animals.
 Internal fertilization is the introduction of the
male gamete into the female’s reproductive tract.
 Vertebrates that practice
internal fertilization have

three strategies:
Oviparity
Ovoviviparity
Viviparity
 Oviparity

Which is found in some
amphibians, fish, and
some reptiles, is when
the eggs are deposited
outside the mother’s
body after fertilization.
 Ovoviviparity

 Is commonly found in mollies,
guppies, and mosquito fish.
 The fertilized eggs are
retained within the mother in
order to complete their
development.
 The embryos still take all of
their nourishment from the egg
yolk.
 The young are thus fully
developed when they hatch.
 Viviparity

Is found in almost all
mammals.
The young develop
within the mother and
takes its nourishment
directly from their
mother’s blood, as
opposed to egg yolks.
 Reproduction in Fish and
Amphibians

 In most species of bony fish
(teleosts), the fertilization of
eggs occurs externally.
 The eggs contain only enough
yolk to sustain the developing
embryo until it is ready to hatch.
 The development of fish is rapid,
and the young are able to find
their own food source from a
very young age.
 Amphibians

 Amphibians use external
fertilization in most cases.
 In these organisms, gametes
from the males and females are
released through the cloaca.
 Most amphibian eggs develop in
the water.
 The time required for amphibians
to develop is much longer than
fish.
 However, amphibian eggs do not
have a lot of yolk.
 Reproduction in Reptiles
and Birds

 Most reptiles and birds are oviparous.
That is, after their eggs have been
fertilized, they are deposited outside
of the mother’s body in order to
complete their development.
 As with most animals that fertilize
internally, male reptiles have a penis
that they use to introduce male
gametes into the female’s
reproductive tract.
 The shells of reptile eggs are leathery,
and this allows for better
withstanding of environmental
conditions.
Reproduction in Mammals

 The reproductive cycles of
mammals differ greatly.
 Some are seasonal breeders
that reproduce only once a year.
 Other have shorter reproductive
cycles.
 Among those that have short
reproductive cycles, females
usually undergo the
reproductive cycle, while males
are more constant in their
reproductive activity.
 Ovulation

 Ovulation in females is the
cyclic release of an egg from
the ovary.
 Most mammals are fertile
only at the time of ovulation.
 The period of sexual
receptivity is called estrus,
and the reproductive cycle is
therefore called an estrous
cycle.
 Overview of Genetics

 The most fundamental
characteristic of all living things
is the ability to reproduce.
 All organisms gain their
genetic material from their
parents.
 Genetic information
determines their structures and
functions by directly
influencing the synthesis of
proteins.
 Gregor Mendel

 Gregor Mendel deduced the
classical principles of genetics
in 1865.
 He based his deductions on
the results of breeding
experiments with peas.
 Characteristics of the peas,
such as seed color, could be
predicted by Mendel through
the determination of a pair of
inherited factors.
 Genes

 One gene copy, which ci
termed as an allele,
specifies a certain trait that
is inherited from each
parent.
 A gene is said to be
dominant if it contains
alleles for two colors, and
only one color shows.
 EXAMPLE

 For instance, breeding yellow and
green peas yields yellow peas.
 In this case, the yellow is said to
be dominant gene while green is
said to be recessive.
 If Y designates yellow and y
designates green, then the genetic
composition (genotype) of the
peas is Yy, and their physical
appearance (phenotype) is yellow.
 Mendelian genetics is the term for
the deductions of Mendel.
 Genes and Enzymes

 The first evidence for the
existence of enzymes came in
1909, through the study of the
disease called
phenylketonuria.
 The disease results from a
genetic defect that results in
problems with the
metabolism of phenylalanine,
an amino acid.
 Phenylketonuria

 This defect was hypothesized to result from a lack
of enzymes needed to catalyze the metabolic
reaction.
 Subsequently, this led to the suggestion that
genes also specify the synthesis of enzymes.
 Replication of DNA

 The discovery of complementary base
pairing between DNA strands suggest
that there is a molecular solution to
the problem of how genetic material
directs its own replication.
 Two strands of DNA can separate to
serve as templates for a new strand.
 This would be specified by base
pairing. This process is called
semiconservative replication, because
one strand is conserved in the
progeny DNA molecule.
 Replication of DNA

 The enzyme that catalyzes DNA
replication is DNA polymerase.
 The replication of DNA can
either be bidirectional, going
both forwards and backwards,
or unidirectional, going only
one direction. DNA polymerase
adds nucleotides to the DNA
chain in a specific direction,
which is from 5’ to 3’.
