CS 236501

Introduction to AI

Tutorial 8
Resolution
 Problem Definition
Input
1. Database containing formally represented facts: First-order
logic sentences converted into clause form.
2. Inference rule: Resolution principle (MP & MT)

Goal: An inference procedure

Requirements:
1. Soundness – every sentence produced by the procedure will
be “true”.
2. Completeness – every “true” sentence can be produced by the
procedure

Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 2

 Definitions
• Terms:
– Constants (e.g. “c1”, “c2”)
– Variables (e.g. “x1”, “x2”)
– Functions (e.g. “f(x1, x2)”)

• Predicate – Indicator function on terminals.

– e.g. EVEN(t) : Numbers  {TRUE, FALSE}

• Atom – the application of a predicate on a literal.

– e.g. EVEN(t)

• Literal – A predicate or its negation

– e.g. EVEN(t), ¬EVEN(t)

Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 3

 Definitions
• Formulae - Recursively defined:
– Every Atom is a formula
– If w1, w2 are formulae, then so are:

w1 , w1  w2 , w1  w2 , w1  w2 , w1 , w1

• Clause – Disjunction (or) of literals.

– e.g. L1 V L2 V ¬L3 (can be written as: {L1, L2 ,¬L3})

Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 4

 The Resolution Principle
• Given:
– A clause Φ containing the literal: φ
– A clause Ψ containing the literal: ¬φ

• We can conclude:
– (Φ – {φ}) U (Ψ – {¬φ})

• Or in the generalized version…

Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 5

 The Resolution Principle
• Given:
– A clause Φ containing the literal: φ
– A clause Ψ containing the literal: ¬ψ

– A most general unifier g of φ and ¬ψ

• We can conclude:
– ((Φ – {φ}) U (Ψ – {¬ψ})) | g

Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 6

 The Resolution Procedure
• Let DB be a set of true sentences without
contradictions, and C be a sentence we want to
prove.

The Idea - proof by negation:

• Assume ¬C and try to find a contradiction.

Intuition
• If all DB sentences are true, and assuming ¬C
creates a contradiction then C must be inferred from
DB.
•

Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 7

 The Resolution Procedure
1. Convert: DB U {¬C} to clause form.

2. If there is a contradiction in DB, C was proved.

Terminate.

3. Select two clauses and add their resolvents to the

current DB. If there are no resolvable clauses – the
procedure fails, terminate. Else, go to step 2.

Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 8

 Conversion to Clause Form
1. Eliminate all :
– Replace AB with ¬A V B

2. Distribute negations:
– Replace ¬¬A with A
–   A  B  withA  B
– …

3. Eliminate existential quantifiers by replacing with

Skölem constants or functions:
– 
e.g. xy  P1  x, y   P2  x, y    x P1  x, f  x    P2  x, f  x   
Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 9
 Conversion to Clause Form
4. Rename variables to avoid duplicates between
different quantifiers.

5. Drop all universal quantifiers

6. Put expression into conjunctive normal form (CNF).

7. Convert to clauses (sets of literals).

8. Rename variables to avoid duplicates between

different clauses.

Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 10

Conversion to Clauses - Example
• Initial expression:
 y  on  x, y   bigger  y , x    
  
  
x brick  x   y  on  y, x   brick  y   
  
  
y, z  on  x, y   on  x, z    equal  y , z   


• Remove implications:
 y  on  x, y   bigger  y , x    
  
  
x brick  x   y  on  y, x   brick  y   
  
  
y, z   on  x, y   on  x, z    equal  y, z   


Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 11

Conversion to Clauses - Example
• Previous step:
 y  on  x, y   bigger  y , x    
  
  
x brick  x   y  on  y, x   brick  y   
  
  
y, z   on  x, y   on  x, z    equal  y, z   


• Move negations inwards:

 y  on  x, y   bigger  y, x    
  
  
x brick  x   y  on  y, x   brick  y   
  
  
y, z  on  x, y   on  x, z    equal  y , z   


Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 12

Conversion to Clauses - Example
• Previous step:
 y  on  x, y   bigger  y, x    
  
  
x brick  x   y  on  y, x   brick  y   
  
  
y, z  on  x, y   on  x, z    equal  y , z   


• Remove existential quantifiers:


 
 
 on  x,support  x    bigger  support  x  , x    

  
x brick  x   y  on  y, x   brick  y   
  
   
y, z  on  x, y   on  x, z    equal  y , z   


Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 13

Conversion to Clauses - Example
• Previous step:

 
 
 on  x,support  x    bigger  support  x  , x    

  
x brick  x   y  on  y, x   brick  y   
  
   
y, z  on  x, y   on  x, z    equal  y , z   


• Rename variables:

 
 
 on  x,support  x    bigger  support  x  , x    

  
x brick  x   y  on  y, x   brick  y   
  
  
w, z  on  x, w   on  x, z    equal  w, z   
 

Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 14

Conversion to Clauses - Example
• Previous step:

 
 
 on  x,support  x    bigger  support  x  , x    

  
x brick  x   y  on  y, x   brick  y   
  
  
w, z  on  x, w   on  x, z    equal  w, z   
 

• Remove universals quantifiers:


 
 
 on  x,support  x    bigger  support  x  , x    

  
brick  x    on  y, x   brick  y   
  
  
  on  x, w   on  x, z    equal  w, z  


Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 15

Conversion to Clauses - Example
• Previous step:





 on  x,support  x    bigger  support  x  , x    

 
  brick  x   

  on  y , x   brick  y    


 
 

 
on  x, w   on  x, z    equal  w, z  
 

• Convert to CNF:
brick  x   on  x,support  x    
brick  x   bigger  support  x  , x   
brick  x   on  y, x   brick  y   
brick  x   on  x, w   on  x, z   equal  w, z  

Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 16

Conversion to Clauses - Example
• Previous step:
brick  x   on  x,support  x    
brick  x   bigger  support  x  , x   
brick  x   on  y, x   brick  y   
brick  x   on  x, w   on  x, z   equal  w, z  

• Convert to clauses:
 brick  x  , on  x,support  x    ,
 brick  x  , bigger  support  x  , x   ,
 brick  x  , on  y, x  , brick  y   ,
 brick  x  , on  x, w  , on  x, z  , equal  w, z  

Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 17

Conversion to Clauses - Example
• Previous step:
 brick  x  , on  x,support  x    ,
 brick  x  , bigger  support  x  , x   ,
 brick  x  , on  y, x  , brick  y   ,
 brick  x  , on  x, w  , on  x, z  , equal  w, z  
• Rename variables:
 brick  x1  , on  x1 ,support  x1    ,
 brick  x  , bigger  support  x  , x   ,
2 2 2

 brick  x  , on  y, x  , brick  y   ,

3 3

 brick  x  , on  x , w  , on  x , z  , equal  w, z  

4 4 4

Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 18

 Simple Example
• The problem:
– “Heads I win, tails you lose.”
– Use resolution to show I always win.

• Facts representation:
1. H  Win  Me 
2. T  Loose  You 
3. H  T
4. Loose  You   Win  Me 

Goal : Win  Me 

Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 19

 Simple Example
• Proof:
1.  H ,Win  Me  
2.  T , Loose  You  
3.  H ,T
4.  Loose  You  ,Win  Me  
5.  Win  Me  
6.  T ,Win  Me   2, 4
7.  T ,Win  Me   1,3
8.  Win  Me   6, 7
9. {} 5,8

Dec 9, 202 Intro. to AI – Tutorial 8 20