Physical Principles and Fundamentals of MPT

PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES AND
FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE

TESTING (MPT)
INSP. JARAMILLA, VINCENT ELLIE B.

WELDING ENG’R / NDT ENG’R
Physical Principles and Fundamentals
of Magnetic Particle Testing (MT)
6.1 ELECTRICITY – the energy produced when electrons are caused to

directional flow from atom to atom.
6.1.1. Current (unit: Ampere) – orderly movement of electrons from one

part of a circuit to another.
Electron Theory Requirements:

1. A source of electrical pressure (cell or generator)
1. 2. A complete external electric circuit.
Conventional Flow: (+) terminal to (-) terminal
Actual Flow: (-) terminal to (+) terminal
Metallic Conductor
Physical Principles…
In a conductor, current is due to motion of the free charges.
Negative charges crossing a section from right to left are equivalent to

positive charges crossing from left to right:
Q where:
I = ------- I - Current, Amperes
t Q- Charge, Coulomb
t - time, second
6.1.2. Voltage (unit: Volt) – a charge has a potential energy because of its
position.
Potential difference is the work needed to move a unit (+) charge

between two points.
1 Volt = 1 Joule/Coulomb
EMF or electrical pressure – the force that makes electron move in a

certain direction within a conductor
Sources of EMF are batteries, generators, photovoltaic cells, etc.

6.1.3. Resistance (unit: Ohm) – forces that oppose the flow of electrons
in a conductor.
Materials with low resistance allow flow of electricity easily.
Materials with higher resistance require more voltage (EMF) to
make the electricity flow.
Resistance depends upon: L

1. the length of the conductor. R =  -----
2. the material of the conductor. A
3. the cross-sectional area of the conductor R – resistance
 - resistivity
L – length of conductor
A –cross-sectional area
Physical Principles …
6.1.4. Ohm’s Law
V = IR V – voltage
I - current
R – resistance
The electrical current flowing in a circuit is directly
proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional to
the resistance:
I = V/ R
6.1.5. Alternating Current
In an AC circuit, the direction of current flowing is constantly being
reversed back and forth 60 times each second.
The electrical current in your house is Alternating Current.

Those big wires stretching across the roads are carrying Alternating
Currents from power plants to the loads in your homes and businesses.
6.1.6. Direct Current

The current flows in only one direction.
Direct current can be generated by batteries, solar cells, fuel cells,
and some types of generators
.
Alternating and Direct Currents
Alternating and Direct Currents
6.1.7. Rectifier is a device used to convert AC to DC and permits current

to flow in one direction only.
When a simple rectifier is applied to the AC current, the result is the
half-wave pattern .
When rectifiers are used to pass all the AC, the full-wave pattern is
obtained.
AC is also available in three phase circuits which provides three cycles
that follow each other at interval of 60 degrees. When these peaks are
full-wave rectified, a very smooth DC is obtained.
Continuous direct current, alternating current and half-wave direct current

(HWDC) are used as magnetizing currents in magnetic particle testing.
6.2. Magnetism
Each electron in an atom spins around its
nucleus and on its axis.
The rotation and spin gives rise

to magnetic field.
The net resultants of their currents or spins is to either cancel
the field or strengthen the resultant field.
The atom behaves as a tiny magnet and is called a magnetic

dipole.
Properties of a Magnet:
1. Attracts other magnetic materials.
2. Surrounded by a magnetic field.
3. The magnetic field lines originate
from the north poles, pass through
the air and enters the magnet
through the south poles.
4. Within the magnetic materials,
the magnetic lines flow
from south to north.
5. Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
6. Aligns itself parallel to earth’s
magnetic fields, i.e. in north-south direction
6.2.1 Magnetic Poles
“Poles” – the points (North and South) near the end of a magnet where
magnetic lines of force are concentrated.
Coulomb’s Law:
m1 x m3
F =
 r2
where: m1 and m2 - strengths of two poles

 - permeability of the medium where the poles are
r – distance between the two poles
Physical Principles
6.2.2. Permanent Magnets – heat treated specially formulated alloys in a
strong magnetic field. The magnetic domains aligned during the
heat treating process, and remained aligned after the field has been
removed.
Properties of Materials for Permanent Magnets:
1. Magnetically hard.
2. Retains high degree of magnetism.
3. Needs high coercive force to remove magnetism
4. Has a wide Hysteresis Curve
HYSTERESIS LOOP
Commercial permanent magnets last indefinitely without

subjecting to high temperature, physical shock, or to a
strong demagnetizing field.
Curie Temperature – the temperature at which a magnetic
material loses its ferromagnetic properties; I.e. 800 degrees
Centigrade for iron.
Examples of Permanent Magnets:
alloy of aluminum, nickel, cobalt (AlNiCo)
alloy of copper, nickel and cobalt (CuNiCo)
alloy of Copper, Nickel and Iron (CuNiFe)
6.2.3. Temporary Magnets

Mild steel and other materials
are easily magnetized.
When magnetic field is

removed, part or whole
magnetism is lost.
Magnetic domains are easily

disturbed after removal of
magnetic field
PARAMAGNETIC MATERIALS
6.2.4 Ferromagnetic Materials – have relative permeabilities considerably

greater than 1.
They become strongly magnetized in the same direction as the
magnetizing field.
Dipoles of atoms align themselves in the same direction.
Examples: Iron, Cobalt, Gadolinium, Nickel
Physical Properties
6.2.4. Paramagnetic Materials – have relative permeabilities slightly

greater than I.
They are slightly magnetized but in the opposite direction of the applied
magnetic field.
In the absence of magnetic field, the dipoles are randomly oriented.
A small degree of alignment is obtained when magnetic field is applied.
The alignment vanishes when field is removed.
Examples: Aluminum, platinum, stainless steel, vacuum, air, wood,

CuSo4, and solid oxygen
6.2.4. Diamagnetic Materials – have relative permeabilities less than 1

and the susceptibility is negative.
Atoms do not have permanent dipole moments.
Applying magnetic field produces temporary magnetic dipole moments
which oppose the field producing them.
Examples: Bismuth, Ag, Au, Pb, Copper, Mercury and water

DIPOLE ARRANGEMENTS
B-H GRAPHS
6.3. Magnetic Field- the area surrounding the magnetized material where
the effects of the lines of force can be felt.
The direction of the magnetic field is defined by the direction in which an
isolated North Pole would tend to move.
Without a crack or any

discontinuity, the
lines of the
magnetic field pass
from end to end of
a material without
breaking through
the surface.
SOUND MATERIAL
Surface Discontinuities
When there is discontinuity,
some lines of magnetic
field may emerge from the
object and pass through
the air.
Very small ferromagnetic
particles sprinkled over
the surface would be
attracted and held by the
leakage field in the region
of the discontinuity.
Internal Discontinuity
A discontinuity that
lies deep within the
object may not
disturb the lines of
force to cause them
to emerge from the
surface.
Hence, there would be
no attraction of the
particles and no
surface indication.
Because the permeability of air is

much lower than that of the
ferromagnetic materials, the
lines of flux tend to pass
through the air outside the
bounds of material.
Mathematically, it is predicted by:
B=H
Where B – flux density
 - permeability
H – magnetizing force
decrease in  while H is
unchanged gives smaller value
of B, thus lower flux density
exist in air.
ORIENTATION OF DISCONTINUITIES
A discontinuity oriented parallel to the magnetic field in the object will
have far less effect on the field than a discontinuity perpendicular to
the field.
The test sensitivity is best for discontinuities oriented 90 degrees to the

field direction, with tolerable results possible down to about 75
degrees.
LINES OF FORCE
Properties of Lines of Force:
1. They are in state of longitudinal
tension and tend to contract in length.
2. They take parallel paths
and tend to repel one another.
3. They never intersect.
4. They emerge from north pole
and enter the south pole, forming
a closed loop through the magnet.
5. They are deflected by and tend
to pass through magnetic materials
and induce magnetism into that material.
6. Non-magnetic materials are
transparent to lines of force.
LINES OF MAGNETIC FORCE
MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE
Magnetic Field Around a

Conductor
Danish physicist Hans

Oersted concluded that
a current in a wire
produces a magnetic
field around it.
The field is circular and

is stronger closer to the
wire and becomes
weaker as the distance
from the wire increases.
The Right Hand Rule

If the wire is grasped
in the right hand with
the thumb pointing in
the direction of the
current, the fingers of
the hand will circle the
wire in the direction of
the magnetic field.
Field Distribution in Magnetic
and Non-Magnetic
Conductors
• Either a solid or hollow

central conductor is used in
MPT of hollow articles
such as pipe, tubing, rings,
flanges, nuts, etc.
• The magnetic field strength
within and around a current
carrying conductor varies
with the type, size, and
shape of the conductor, I.e.
length, diameter and
material.
When current is passed through a

solid non-magnetic
conductor like copper bar,
the following holds true:
1. The magnetic field strength is
zero at the center and
maximum at the surface.
2. The field strength at the
surface of the conductor
decreases as the radius
increases.
3. When current is increased, the
field strength increases.
4. The field strength outside the
conductor diminishes with the
distance from the center.
FIELD DISTRIBUTION
Physical Principles
A solid magnetic conductor like

ferromagnetic steel has much
greater field strength than a
solid non-magnetic conductor
because of its permeability.
The field strength outside a solid

magnetic conductor is exactly
the same as with a non-
magnetic conductor if the
current and radius are
unchanged.
MAGNETIC CONDUCTOR
In a hollow, non-magnetic, circular conductor there is no

current flow within the void.
The field is zero at the center and increases to maximum at

the outer surface.
If a hollow non-magnetic and a solid non- magnetic

conductor have the same outer diameter and the same
current flow, then the outer surface field strengths are
equal.
HOLLOW NON-MAGNETIC
CONDUCTOR
The field strength at the outer

surface of a hollow magnetic
conductor is the same as that
for the solid magnetic
conductor, if their outer
diameter and current flow are
identical.
The field strength at the inner

surface is zero and the field
outside the conductor is the
same as for other conductors.
HOLLOW MAGNETIC CONDUCTOR
HOLLOW MAGNETIC
CYLINDER
ALTERNATING CURRENT FIELD DISTRIBUTION
Skin Effect – When AC

magnetization is used, the
magnetic field tends to flow
near the surface of a conductor,
even at commercial frequencies
(50 cycles).
In a solid magnetic conductor

carrying AC, the field strength
outside the conductor decreases
as when DC is used, but the
field is constantly varying both
in strength and direction.
SOLID MAGNETIC CONDUCTOR
Similar differences in a field

distribution also occur
with a hollow magnetic
conductor, when AC is
used for magnetization.
HOLLOW MAGNETIC
CONDUCTOR
Residual circular fields remaining
in magnetic conductors after
DC magnetizing current is
removed will be distributed in
much the same pattern as when
the current was flowing.
When DC is reduced to zero, the
field will have less intensity
and there will be no field
outside the conductor.
When longitudinal magnetization
is used, interruption of the
magnetizing DC results in
transient currents being
induced inside the specimen.
ALTERNATING CURRENT RESIDUAL FIELDS
When AC magnetization is gradually reduced to zero, no

residual field remains in the magnetized article.
When the AC is suddenly interrupted, a residual field may

remain depending upon the point in the current cycle
where the interruption occurs.
SOLENOID
Solenoid – tightly wound
cylindrical coil of
wire, air-cored, the
axial length is much
greater than the
diameter of the turns.
The magnetic field
strength is
proportional to:
1. The number of turns
2. The magnitude of the
current
3. The radius of the coil
SOLENOID
Solenoid
The value of flux density is given by the formula:
B = o n I
where B – flux density

o- the permeability of the free space
n – the number of turns per unit length
I - the current
ELECTROMAGNET
Electromagnet – a form of
magnet where an electrical
coil is wrapped around a
piece of soft
ferromagnetic steel, and
electrical current is used
to produce magnetism. A
switch is included in the
circuit to turn on and off
the current and the
magnetic field.
Magnetic Flux
The closeness of magnetic
lines of force existing in
and around magnetized
material is a measure of
strength or magnetic flux
in the region.
1 unit of magnetic flux is
represented by one line of
force
Physical Principles
Flux,  - unit is maxwell

1 Weber = 1 x 108 lines or
maxwells
Flux Density, B – the number

of lines of force per unit area
Unit: Tesla
1 Tesla = 1 Wb/m2
Magnetising Force
or Magnetic Field Intensity, H
-the force that could be
experienced by an isolated
north pole of strength 1 unit
when placed in that field
Unit: Oersted
If a magnetic pole of m units
experiences a force of F dynes
in a magnetic field, the
magnetising force is:
H = F/m
The intensity of field around a

long straight wire:
H = 1/ 2r
where H – the Field Strength
In Amperes-turn/meter at a
point r from the wire and I
is current in Amperes
Reluctance – a measure of
opposition offered by the
material to the applied A material with high
magnetizing force. permeability has low
reluctance.
 = F/R
where  - Flux, Webers
F –magneto-motive A material with low
force, Amp-turns permeability has high
R – reluctance reluctance
The reluctance of material
determines the magnitude of
flux produced
Hysteresis – the retardation

of the magnetic effect
when magnetizing force H
acting on the
ferromagnetic material is
changed.
If a variable external field is
applied to a virgin
specimen and both the
external field and the
degree of magnetization or
flux density are measured,
the hysteresis curve can be
plotted.
HYSTERESIS LOOP
FERROMAGNETIC MATERIALS
MAGNETIC FIELD CHARACTERISTICS
1. Remanence – the level of
magnetism retained by a
magnetic material after the
magnetizing force is
removed.
Hard material have higher
remanence.
Magnetically soft material
have lower remanence.
Materials with slender
hysteresis curves possess
high remanence.
2. Permeability, 
the ease with which a
magnetic field or flux can
be set up in a magnetic
material.
 = B/H
where:
B – flux density
H – magnetizing force
Maximum permeability – the
Material permeability – level of magnetization is
important in inspection is chosen to be just below
using circular the knee of a normal
magnetization. The B and magnetizing curve for the
specific material, the
the H are measured point
maximum material
by point for the entire permeability occurs near
magnetization curve using this point. For steel, maxis
a fluxmeter while the from 500 to 2000 gauss
flux path is entirely within per oersted. The 500
the material. value is for series 400
stainless steel
Effective permeability – the Initial Permeability – the

ratio of the flux density in
peremability exhibited
the part to the magnetizing
force, when the when both the flux
magnetizing force is density, B and the
measured at the same magnetizing force, H,
point in the absence of the approach zero.
part.
This is governed by the With increasing H, the
shape of the part and is of
magnetic field in the part
prime importance for
longitudinal increases along the
magnetization. “virgin” curve of the
hysteresis loop.
SATURATION
Saturation – the level of
magnetization of the magnetic
material beyond which any
further increase in the
magnetizing force, H will not
produce any increase in the
magnetic flux, B.
At this point, all the magnetic
domains become aligned in the
direction of the magnetic field
and remain aligned even after
magnetizing force is removed.
SATURATION
Tangential component of H –
the component of the field
having direction parallel
to the surface of the part.
Hall Effect -when current is
passed through a metallic
or semi-conducting
material in a magnetic
field, voltage is produced
at right angles to the
current flow direction and
the field direction.
The voltage produced in Hall Effect is given by:
V = R I H/ t
where:
I – current in Amperes
H- magnetic field strength, Amperes/meter
t – thickness of the plate per meter
R – Hall coefficient of the material
Physical Properties…
Visible and Ultraviolet Light

The UV light is between 200-400 nanometer in the
Electromagnetic Specturm.
The black light is within the UV light region and has

wavelength between 320-400 nanometer.
The human eye cannot detect black light when there is

visible light.
The fluorescent coating on the ferromagnetic particles
absorb the black light and re-emit it as yellow-green
visible light under dark room conditions.
TERMINOLOGY & ABBREVIATIONS
• Ampere per meter (A/m) – SI unit of magnetic

field and magnetization.
• Ampere Turn ( magnetomotive force) – metre-
kilogram-second (M.K.S.) – force of a closed loop
of one turn when there is a current of 1 ampere
flowing in the loop.
• Conductivity – ratio of the electric field in a
material, also known as electrical conductivity.
TERMINOLOGY….
• Coulomb, a unit of electrical charge, defined as
the amount of electric charge that crosses a surface
in 1 second when a steady current of 1 absolute
ampere is flowing across the surface.
• Gauss, a unit of magnetic induction in the
electromagnetic system and gaussian system of
units, equal to 1 maxwell per square centimeter, or
10¯⁴weber per square metre also known as ab
tesla (abt) gauss.
Terminology…
• Gilbert , a unit of magnetomotive force in the
electromagnetic system equal to the
magnetomotive force of a closed loop of one turn
in which there is a current of 1/4π.
• Henry, the M.K.S. unit of self and mutual
inductance equal to the self in ductance of a circuit
or mutual inductance between two circuits if there
is an induced electromotive force of 1 volt when
the current is changing at the rate of 1 ampere per
second.
Terminology…
• Maxwell (Mx), a centimetre-gram-second
electromagnetic unit of magnetic flux equal
to the magnetic flux which produces an
elctromotive force of 1 ab volt in acircuit of
one turn linking the flux as the flux is
reduced to zero in 1 second at a uniform
rate.
1 weber = 10 e 8 Maxwell
Terminology…
• Oersted, a unit of magnetic field strength in the centimetre-
gram second electromagnetic system of units equal to the
field strength at the centre of a plane circular coil of one
turn and 1 centimetre radius when there is a current of ½
ab.amp in the coil.
• Tesla (T) , SI unit of magnetic flux density equal to one
weber per square metre.
• Weber, a unit of magnetic flux in the M.K.S. system equal
to the magnetic flux which linking a circuit of one turn,
produces in it an electromotive force of 1 volt as it is
reduced to zero at a uniform rate.
DERIVED UNITS
• Force Newton () = kg.m/sec²
• Work/Energy Joule (J) = N.m
• Power Watt (W) = J/s
• Electric Charge Coulomb© = A.s
• Electrical Potential Volt(V) = Ω/A
• Electric Capacitance Farad (F) = As/V
• Electric Resistance Ohm (Ω) = V/A
DERIVED UNITS
• Frequency Hertz (Hz) = δ¯¹
• Magnetic FluxWeber (Wb) = Vs
• Magnetic Flux Density Tesla (T) = Wb/m²
• Inductance Henry (H) = Vs/A
• Luminous Flux Lumen(Lm) = Cdsr
• Illumination Lux (Lx) = Gn/m²
THANK YOU!!!
HAVE A NICE DAY!!!

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Physical Principles and Fundamentals of MPT

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PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES AND

FUNDAMENTALS OF MAGNETIC PARTICLE

INSP. JARAMILLA, VINCENT ELLIE B.

6.1 ELECTRICITY – the energy produced when electrons are caused to

6.1.1. Current (unit: Ampere) – orderly movement of electrons from one

Electron Theory Requirements:

In a conductor, current is due to motion of the free charges.

Negative charges crossing a section from right to left are equivalent to

Potential difference is the work needed to move a unit (+) charge

EMF or electrical pressure – the force that makes electron move in a

Sources of EMF are batteries, generators, photovoltaic cells, etc.

Resistance depends upon: L

6.1.4. Ohm’s Law

The electrical current in your house is Alternating Current.

6.1.6. Direct Current

6.1.7. Rectifier is a device used to convert AC to DC and permits current

Continuous direct current, alternating current and half-wave direct current

The rotation and spin gives rise

The atom behaves as a tiny magnet and is called a magnetic

where: m1 and m2 - strengths of two poles

Properties of Materials for Permanent Magnets:

Commercial permanent magnets last indefinitely without

6.2.3. Temporary Magnets

When magnetic field is

Magnetic domains are easily

6.2.4 Ferromagnetic Materials – have relative permeabilities considerably

6.2.4. Paramagnetic Materials – have relative permeabilities slightly

In the absence of magnetic field, the dipoles are randomly oriented.

A small degree of alignment is obtained when magnetic field is applied.

The alignment vanishes when field is removed.

Examples: Aluminum, platinum, stainless steel, vacuum, air, wood,

6.2.4. Diamagnetic Materials – have relative permeabilities less than 1

Examples: Bismuth, Ag, Au, Pb, Copper, Mercury and water

Without a crack or any

Because the permeability of air is

The test sensitivity is best for discontinuities oriented 90 degrees to the

Magnetic Field Around a

Danish physicist Hans

The field is circular and

The Right Hand Rule

• Either a solid or hollow

When current is passed through a

A solid magnetic conductor like

The field strength outside a solid

In a hollow, non-magnetic, circular conductor there is no

The field is zero at the center and increases to maximum at

If a hollow non-magnetic and a solid non- magnetic

The field strength at the outer

The field strength at the inner

Skin Effect – When AC

In a solid magnetic conductor

Similar differences in a field

When AC magnetization is gradually reduced to zero, no

When the AC is suddenly interrupted, a residual field may

where B – flux density

Flux,  - unit is maxwell

Flux Density, B – the number

The intensity of field around a

Hysteresis – the retardation

Effective permeability – the Initial Permeability – the

The voltage produced in Hall Effect is given by:

Visible and Ultraviolet Light

The black light is within the UV light region and has

The human eye cannot detect black light when there is