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1. General concepts about skeleton

2. Bone as an organ
3. Functions of the skeleton
4. Classification of bones
• Human skeleton initially cartilages and fibrous membranes
• Hyaline cartilage is the most abundant cartilage
• By age 25 the skeleton is completely hardened
•206 bones make up the adult skeleton (20% of body
mass)
• 80 bones of the axial skeleton
• 126 bones of the appendicular skeleton

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 The axial skeleton
consists of 80 bones
that form the axis of
the body and which
supports and protects
the organs of the head,
neck, and trunk.
 Skull
 Auditory ossicles
 Hyoid bone
 Vertebral column
 Thoracic cage
 The appendicular skeleton is composed of
126 bones of the upper and lower limbs
and the bony girdles, which anchor the
appendages to the axial skeleton.

 The shoulder girdle (the

scapula and clavicle)
 The upper limb (the humerus,
ulna, radius and bones of the
hand)
 The pelvic girdle (the hip bone)
 The lower limb (the femur,
tibia, fibula and bones of the
foot)
 Skull

Scapula Clavicle
Humerus Sternum
Ribs
Ulna
Radius
Carpals
Metacarpals
Pelvis
Phalanges
Femur
Patella

Fibula
Tibia
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
Classification of Bones on the
Basis of Shape

Figure 5.1

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.4c
Classification of Bones

 Long bones
 Typically longer than wide
 Have a shaft with heads at both ends
 Contain mostly compact bone
• Examples: Femur, humerus

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.4a
Classification of Bones

 Short bones
 Generally cube-shape
 Contain mostly spongy bone
 Examples: Carpals, tarsals

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.4b
Classification of Bones

 Flat bones
 Thin and flattened
 Usually curved
 Thin layers of compact bone around a layer
of spongy bone
 Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.5a
Classification of Bones

 Irregular bones
 Irregular shape
 Do not fit into other bone classification
categories
 Example: Vertebrae and hip

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.5b
• Epiphysis Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Epiphyseal plates
• Distal Articular cartilage
• Proximal Spongy bone
Proximal
epiphysis
• Diaphysis Space containing
• Metaphysis red marrow

• Compact bone Endosteum

Compact bone
• Spongy bone
Medullary cavity
• Articular cartilage
Yellow marrow
• Periosteum
Periosteum Diaphysis
• Endosteum
• Medullary cavity
• Trabeculae
• Bone marrow
• Red marrow and yellow marrow

Distal
epiphysis

Femur 12
 • Spongy bone is aka cancellous bone
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Spongy
bone

Compact
bone

(a)
Remnant of Spongy bone Compact bone
epiphyseal plate
(b)

Spongy Compact
(c)
bone bone
a: © Ed Reschke; b,c: Courtesy of John W. Hole, Jr.
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•Parts of the skeletal system begin to develop during
the first few weeks of prenatal development

•Bones replace existing connective tissue in one of

two ways:
• As intramembranous bones
• As endchondral bones

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• Intramembranous Bones
• These bones originate within sheetlike layers of
connective tissues
• They are the broad, flat bones
• Skull bones (except mandible)
• Are known as intramembranous bones

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• Endochondral Bones
• Bones begin as hyaline cartilage
• Form models for future bones
• These are most bones of the skeleton
• Are known as endochondral bones

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 • Hyaline cartilage model • Epiphyseal plate
• Primary ossification center • Osteoblasts vs. osteoclasts
• Secondary ossification centers
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Articular
Remnants of cartilage
Secondary epiphyseal
ossification plates
Cartilaginous Developing Compact bone center
model periosteum developing Spongy
bone
Epiphyseal
plates

Blood
Medullary Medullary Medullary
vessel
cavity cavity cavity
Compact
bone
Remnant of
Epiphyseal epiphyseal
Calcified Primary plate plate
cartilage ossification Secondary Spongy
center ossification bone
center Articular
cartilage
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
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• Deficiency of Vitamin A – retards bone development
• Deficiency of Vitamin C – results in fragile bones
• Deficiency of Vitamin D – rickets, osteomalacia
• Insufficient Growth Hormone – dwarfism
• Excessive Growth Hormone – gigantism, acromegaly
• Insufficient Thyroid Hormone – delays bone growth
• Sex Hormones – promote bone formation; stimulate ossification

of epiphyseal plates
• Physical Stress – stimulates bone growth

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• Bones shape, support, and protect body structures

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• Support, Movement & Protection
• Gives shape to head, etc.
• Supports body’s weight
• Protects lungs, etc.
• Bones and muscles interact
• When limbs or body parts move

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• Blood Cell Formation
• Also known as hematopoiesis
• Occurs in the red bone marrow

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• Inorganic Salt Storage
• Calcium
• Phosphate
• Magnesium
• Sodium
• Potassium

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•The actual number of bones in the human skeleton
varies from person to person

• Typically there are about 206 bones

• For convenience the skeleton is divided into the:

• Axial skeleton
• Appendicular skeleton

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