UNIT 3.

ORIGINS OF LIFE AND EVOLUTION

1. THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
1.1. THE CONCEPT OF LIFE

Life: ability that the living things have to carry out the vital functions.

Vital functions:
• Birth.
• Growth.
• Nutrition. Living things exchange matter and energy with their surroundings.
• Metabolism. Life-sustaining chemical reactions in organisms.
• Stimulus response. The organisms respond to stimuli and adapt to environmental conditions.
• Reproduction. Formation of new organisms, enabling the species last and evolve.
1.2. PRIMORDIAL CONDITIONS ON EARTH (HADEAN ERA)

Shortly after its formation, there were no conditions for life on the Earth.
• Extreme high temperatures (the collisions of the planets that formed the Earth released a large amount of heat).
• Great volcanic activity (the heat melted the rocks, transformed in magma, creating volcanoes).
• Meteorite bombardments.
• Lethal radiations.
• Atmosphere composition: CO 2, water (vapor), hydrogen, ammonia, nitrogen oxides… No oxygen or ozone.

https://youtu.be/de1hiS_XjWg

 
1.3. THE FIRST LIVING THING

The Earth had already contained the biogenic elements: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
These elements combined in many possible ways to form simple molecules.
Simple molecules combined and formed biomolecules.
Biomolecules, under favorable conditions evolved to the first living cell.

The origin of life happened between 3600 and 3800 million years ago (probably in a hydrothermal vent in an ocean).
The first cell would be very similar to the extremophile microorganisms, which live in extreme environments.
1.4. DETERMINING CONDITIONS FOR THE EXISTENCE OF LIFE IN A PLANET

• Type of star that the planet orbits and the distance between the planet and the star (habitable zone).
• The planet’s mass and gravity. Massive planets create more gravity. Gravity retains the atmosphere.
• The tectonic plates and volcanic phenomena. If there weren’t any tectonic plates, the erosion would destroy the continents.
• A powerful magnetic field. It is a shield that protects us from lethal radiations.
• The greenhouse effect. It keeps an optimal temperature temperature for life.

• https://youtu.be/odP3akRWJlY

Life needs:

• Water in liquid state.

• Biogenic elements which make up living matter: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.
2. THEORIES ABOUT THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
2.1. SPONTANEOUS GENERATION

Life appears spontaneously generated from matter itself. The matter contains a force that causes life and make living beings appear.
Living things come from non-living matter.
Pasteur refuted this theory with an experiment.

Pasteur’s conclusion:
If there are no microorganisms, they don’t appear spontaneously.
When the flask is opened, the microorganisms that live in the air come into the flask and grow in the broth.

Life comes from life, not from non-living matter. Living things come from former living things.
Spontaneous generation is false.
2.2 PANSPERMIA

Life had originated elsewhere in space and it has arrived to Earth in meteorites coming from space.
Evidence: Organic molecules, DNA and fossilized bacteria have been found in meteorites.
Bacteria are highly resistant to cosmic radiation and extreme temperatures.
More evidence is needed to confirm the hypothesis of the panspermia.

2.3 OPARIN-HALDANE THEORY

This theory states that life originated from the substances that reacted in the surface of the primitive oceans.
The primitive atmosphere contained ammonia, carbon dioxide and water vapor.
This substances reacted with the help of electric shocks (storms, radiation…) and formed the first biomolecules.
Biomolecules would have evolved to form the first living cell, but no one knows how.

In 1953 the biochemists Miller and Urey constructed a device that reproduces the conditions of the primitive atmosphere.
They submitted a mixture of methane, water, hydrogen and ammonia to electric shocks and they obtained some biomolecules.

Conclusion: The step from non-living matter (simple molecules) to the first biomolecules happened that way.
The step from the biomolecules to life is unknown.
 
3. EVOLUTION AND EVOLUTIONARY THEORIES
3.1. KEY CONCEPTS OF EVOLUTION

Fixism: all the species have remained the same throughout the earth’s history.
It was the prevalent belief until the 19 th century.

Species: group of individuals that can reproduce among themselves and have a fertile offspring.

Evolution: continuous process by which living species transform and new ones appear, thanks to small changes between
individuals of two generations. All the species have undergone transformations since the origin.
3.2. PREVIOUS IDEAS OF THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION OF LIVING THINGS

Since the theory of evolution involves many concepts , these previous ideas precede the theories of the evolution of the species.

• Linnaeus. Concept of species. He established the concept of species and studied their variation.

• Buffon. Idea of relationship between species. Species change over time and are related. Living things are related and transform.

• Hutton. Idea of geological time. The evolution is a gradual process of change. It has taken millions of years.

• Lamarck. Idea of common origin. Evolution is based on the progressive inheritance of acquired traits.

• Cuvier. Significance of fossils. Fossils are the remainders of extinct species.

• Malthus. Competition for resources. The evolution happens because of the competition for resources. Only the fittest survive.

• Darwin and Wallace. Mechanisms of the evolution. The natural selection explains species evolution.
3.3. THE FIRST EVOLUTIONARY THEORY: LAMARCKISM

• Different species have a common origin (common ancestor) and evolve.

• The diversity of living things is a result of the adaptation of the organisms to different environments.

Process

1. The environment changes. The changes create new needs for the living things. Living things must adapt to the changes.

2. The organs develop or deteriorate. The living thing acquires new traits. “The function creates the organ”.

3. The new acquired traits are kept and passed down to the offspring.

Since the leaves of the trees “move” higher, giraffes developed a long neck. This trait is passed down to the offspring, that has a longer neck
3.4. THE SECOND EVOLUTIONARY THEORY: DARWINISM

Darwin and Wallace proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection (survival of the fittest).

Process

1. Organisms have a high capacity for reproduction. Species tend to produce a large offspring.

2. The descendants are similar but not identical (variability of the descendants).

3. Only the best-adapted organisms survive (fight for survival).

4. The best-adapted organisms reproduce and pass their favorable traits to their offspring.

5. After many generations, all the organisms have favorable traits.

3.5. THE ULTIMATE EVOLUTIONARY THEORY: NEO-DARWINISM

It is the synthetic theory of the evolution. It combines the principles of the theory of the evolution with the genetics and the
molecular biology.

Process

1. The organisms of a population are similar but not identical. The variability is due to the sexual reproduction and mutations.

2. Mutations occur randomly. Many of them are negative and other are favorable (adaptive).

3. Nature selects the mutations that help survival in the new environmental conditions (adaptive mutations).

4. Populations adapt gradually to their environment.

4. EVIDENCES OF THE EVOLUTION
The theory of evolution is based on evidences, which come from different scientific disciplines.

4.1. PALAEONTOLOGICAL EVIDENCE – INTERMEDIATE ORGANISMS

They are based on the study of fossils and intermediate organisms.
Since evolution is a very slow process, there must be intermediate organisms and fossils of intermediate organisms.
The intermediate organisms are living things that show features of two different species or two different animal groups.
Confirmation 1: fossils of intermediate organisms have been found. Conclusion: there is evolution between species.
Confirmation 2: there are some living species which are intermediate between two animal groups.
Example: the platypus is an animal with characteristics between those of birds and mammals. It has a beak and lays eggs.
4.2. EMBRYOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
It is based on the comparative study of embryos of different vertebrate groups at the early stages of embryonic development.
The greater similarity between the embryos of all the types of vertebrates suggest that all the vertebrates have a common origin.
Confirmation: the greater level of similarity between two species, the closer the embryos.
Example: the chicken embryo has aortic arches, characteristic of fish (fish are much less evolved than birds).

Since the embryos are very similar at the first stages of the development, they have a common ancestor.
4.3. ANATOMICAL EVIDENCES

They are based on a comparative study of the organ morphology and anatomical structures of living beings.
When the former species evolves and becomes a new species, it keeps the organs and the structures of more primitive species.
There are three types of organs:
1. Homologous organs. They have a common origin and have adapted to different functions. Ex: legs, wings, fins
2. Analogous organs. They have different evolutionary origins but similar functions.
3. Vestigial organs. They have lost its original function. They don’t have any function now.
If a vestigial organ were extirpated it would not affect the normal life of the individual.
Examples: wisdom teeth, the little toe, the appendix, the muscles to move the ears, body hair.
4.4. BIOCHEMICAL EVIDENCES

All living things are made up of the same elements and the same biomolecules.

The biomolecules that make up living organisms (proteins and DNA) are similar in different species.

The greater the similarity of the biomolecules in different species, the closer the species are.
4.5. BIOGEOGRAPHIC EVIDENCES.

The distribution of the species is due to the organisms spreading out of their place of origin. Example: the ancestors of the camel.

1 - A first species appears in an area. The ancestor of the camel appears in America.

2 – America separates from Asia due to the motion of the tectonic plates. There are camel ancestors in America and Asia.

3 – The population of American camel ancestors evolves and becomes a new species (llama).
The population of Asian camel ancestors evolves and becomes a new species (dromedary).

4 – Since the species are isolated, evolution is more likely. The isolation causes the evolution.

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5. EVOLUTION OF HUMANS
Human beings belong to the order primates and the suborder of anthropoids (primates with highly developed brain).
We have characteristics that distinguish us from other animals, such as our capacity for reason and the complexity of our language.

5.1. FROM THE FIRST PRIMATES TO THE FIRST HOMINIDS - This process happened in three steps.

1 - Mammalian insectivores that lived in the trees evolved into the first primates. It happened about 65-55 million years ago.
2 - The early primates evolved to the apes without snout.
3 - The apes without snout evolved to bipedal primates: the first hominids. It happened 6 million years ago in Africa.

The first hominids left the jungle to live in the savannah, where they could find more food.
They walked upright, had their hands free and raised his body and head to see from far away.
They moved in well organized groups cooperating to hunt more effectively or to defend better.
Hominids are divided into two genera: Australopithecus (don’t make instruments) and Homo (make instruments).
THE FIRST HOMO SPECIES

Australopithecus (4 Million years). They lived in Africa. They walked upright and weren’t able to make tools. Cranial capacity of 300
to 450 cm3.

Homo habilis (2.5 million years). They come from Africa. They were able to make stone tools. They inhabited the savannah and
they were omnivores. They walked right, and they were up to 1.30 m tall and had a cranial capacity of 520 to 750 cm 3.
Homo erectus (1.9 million years).They left Africa and they settled in cold and warm regions. They walked completely upright. They
had a cranial capacity of 800 to 1300 cm 3.
THE HOMO SAPIENS SPECIES

The Neanderthal man had appeared 230,000 years ago and became extinct about 30,000 years ago.
They were hunters and gatherers and lived mostly in Europe. They buried their death.
They were shorter but stronger than modern humans.
They had the head with the forehead extended backwards and a strong jaw.

The Denisova man was discovered in Denisova cave in Siberia.

This species lived in East Asia. It became extinct
Current human populations in Asia and Oceania bring a small part of their genes of this extinct species.

The Homo Sapiens Sapiens (current human species) had appeared in Africa about 130,000 years ago and spread to Asia,
Europe and America.
It has a cranial capacity of 1100 cm 3 . The face is small with chin and high forehead.
It has high intelligence, artistic expression, complex language and capacity to manipulate surroundings.
6. HOMINISATION
Hominisation: process of the evolution of higher primates to humans today.

Most important changes :bipedalism, increased cranial capacity and the emergence of language.

Bipedalism is walking upright. The arms are free from walking, have long fingers and a thumb opposed to others. So the hands
could do many more actions and more accurate, being able to manipulate objects. The legs are specialized in locomotion (walking
or running).

Increased cranial capacity is due to the development of the brain, especially the cerebral cortex, where memory and intelligence are
located.

When the cerebral cortex had developed, the symbolic thought and language appeared. The language is used to collect and
transmit information and create a culture. Culture serves to adjust to our needs the environment in which we live and to interact with
other individuals of the same species.

Culture makes us humans. Any other species is not capable of it.