Production and Control of Scatter Radiation

Moderator : Mr. Ram Singh

Lecturer
Deptt of Radio diagnosis & Imaging
Presenter :RUNISHA
PGIMER, Chandigarh
BOMRAH
1
 Introduction

 When photon beam interacts with matter,

some of its part get absorbed, some gets
deflected to a new direction and rest of its
part is transmitted to produce radiographic
image.

 The part which is deflected from its

original path to a new direction is known as
scattered radiation.
 Definition

The secondary radiation which makes no

favorable contribution to the formation of image
and produce an over all blackness on film thus
reducing overall radiographic contrast
Effects of scatter
1. Increase overall density of film which is not useful in
production of image thus produces fog
2. Reduces contrast
3. Reduces light transmitting ability of film
4. Result in formation of noise
 Characteristics of scatter

 More oblique in nature

 Produced by matter in all direction
 Can travel through longer path in body than
primary beam
 Less energy than primary beam
 With Increase in energy of primary radiation
more scattering in forward direction
 Amount of scatter depends upon volume of
tissue exposed, built of pt and Kvp use
 Interaction of X-Rays with matter

There are five basic ways that an X-ray photon

can interact with matter
Absorption include
 Photoelectric

 Pair production

 Photo disintegration

Scattering include
 Coherent scattering and

 Compton scattering
 Coherent Scattering
Definition
 Those interaction in which radiation undergoes a
change in direction without a change in wavelength.
It is also called unmodified ,classical scattering
Process
 Low energy radiation encounters the electrons of an
atom and sets them into vibration at the frequency
of the radiations. A vibrating electron emits
radiations
 Coherent Scattering
cont.

 The process may be envisioned as absorption of

radiation, vibration of atom and emission of
radiation as the atom returns to its undisturbed
state.

 No energy is transferred and no ionization occurs

with coherent scattering. The only effect is the
change in the direction of incident radiation.
 Types of coherent scattering-Two

Thomson & Rayleigh Scattering

 Thomson was able to determine the
amount of energy scatted by free electron
 A single electron is evolved
 Rayleigh results from co-operative
interaction of all the electron of the atom
 Compton Scattering
All most all the scatter radiation that we encounter in
Diagnostic Radiology come from Compton scattering.
Procedure
 When an incident photon with relatively high energy
strikes a free outer shell electron, it gives some of its
energy to the electron , ejecting it from its orbit. The
photon itself gets deflected in new direction retaining rest
part of its original energy.

 Compton process can be analysed in terms of collisions

b/w a photon and an electron.
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 Dependence of Compton Effect
 60kev-90kev PE+CE and 200kev-2Mevonly CE
 Independent of atomic no.
 It depends upon electron density of atom.
 It gradually decreases as photon energy increases.

Summary
 Involves photon and free electron interaction
 In each collision some energy is absorbed and rest
deflected depending upon angle of collision
 KE of incident photon =KE of recoil electron+KE of deflected
photon
Two factors determine amount of
energy retained by deflected
photon
1.Initial energy and
2.angle of deflection
 Sources of Scatter Radiation

 Glass walls of X-ray tube

 Patient himself
 Table top
 Cassette
 Back scatter from floor
 Back scatter from wall
Factors affecting quantity of scatter
radiation

 Size of field

 Shape of field

 Thickness of body Part

 KV used
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 Methods of Prevention

Prevent the production of scatter radiation by using

following devices
 Beam limiting devices
 Compression bands
Prevent the already formed scatter radiation reaching the
film by using secondary radiation grids.
 Grids
 Beam limiting Devices

These are devices which regulate the shape and

size of beam.These are

 Cones and Cylinders

 Aperture Diaphragms

 Collimators
 CONES
 Tapered metal structure which can be fitted to x-ray
tube at the beam exit port.
 Made up of Brass or Steel,open at both ends.
 Cones come in variety of sizes and shape.
 Field Size from a particular cone depends on
Anode film Distance(A)
Length of cone (L)
Distance b/w narrow end of cone and focal spot (f)
Diameter of cone(D)
Field size =(A/L+f)D
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 Precautions
 Person should be well aware of the field
size irradiated by a particular cone.
 Proper calculations should be made to

find out the cone to be used.

Disadvantages
 Problem of changing the cone depending

on the type of exam.

 Problem of fitting circular field of radiation

to non circular pts and film.

 Cylinder

 Sometimes a radiographic cone is a steel

cylinder which may be extensible in length.
 It can be equipped with extension to give better
beam restriction
 Cylinder is better beam restrictor than a cone
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 Aperture Diaphragm

 The problem of fitting the circular field of

radiation. is over come by using this.
 This is simple tablet of heavy metal and
has central aperture for x-ray beam.
 It can be slotted into a fitting on the tube
part in a similar manner to cone.
Advantages:
• Simple.
• Lead being soft can be altered
to any desired shape
Disadvantage:
• Produces a large penumbra at
periphery of x-ray beam

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 Collimators
 These are two pairs of movable leaves of metal
usually made up of lead situated in x-ray beam.
 These pairs move at right angle to each other
to clear penumbra
 Each pair is operated independent of other by
means of a control knob.
 X-ray field can be seen with help of light bulb in
the unit.
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 Advantages

 Provides infinite variety of square and

rectangular fields.
 Already fitted into the beam so no need of putting
or removing again and again so saves time.
 Same collimator can be used for different field
size.
 Compression bands

 It reduces the amount of scatter by diminishing

the volume of tissue through which x-ray beam
passes
 It displaces the adipose tissue side ways thus
reducing the volume of part to be X-rayed and
lowers the kilovoltage to be used .
Advantages
It acts as immobilizing device. Helps in reduction
of scatter thus improving contrast .
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 Secondary Radiation Grid

 History : Rapid adoption of new technique

and device Dr. Gustave Bucky in 1913
demonstrated scatter radiation and its
remedy by using grids, working in field of
Radiology.
 Introduction: it is a radiographic
accessory which is designed to minimize
the effect of scatter radiation reaching the
film.
 Structure
 Grid is composed of thin strips of lead
which are separated from each other by
inter space material which is penetrable by
primary radiation.
Principle
 The scattered radiation move obliquely so
these oblique rays are absorbed by the
lead strips while the primary radiation
which move in forward direction will pass
through interspace and reach the film.
Grid function

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 Ideal Grid
 It is the one which absorbs all the scatter
radiation and allows the primary radiation to
pass through, but no grid is ideal.

Uses
 Abdomen
 Skull
 Spine
 Pelvis
 Penetrating chest view
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 Parameters of Grid

 Grid ratio

 Grid lattice

 Nature of inter space material

 Lead contents
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 Grid Ratio

 It is defined as ratio b/w height of pb

strips and distance b/w two adjacent
strips.
 Grid ratio=h/D where
h=height
D=distance b/w pb strips

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Grid ratio = h/D =2/.25
=8:1

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 Significance

 It is the parameter which determines

the ability of a grid to remove scatter
radiation.
 It measures the narrowness of the
slits.
 It determines the extent to which
obliquely moving scatter radiation is
absorbed.
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 Grid Lattice

 Number of pb strips per inch in a grid.

No. of lines per inc=25.4/D+d
D= thickness of inter space
material
d=thickness of pb strips
 A grid with large no.of lines per inch or
with a high ratio is preferred for better
quality radiographs.
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 Inter space material

 Holds the lead strips apart

 Must be rigid enough to maintain thin
strips in position but should not absorb
primary radiation.
Material used

 Metal -:AI
 Organic material-: Plastic and wood
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 Lead content

 It is the amount of lead per unit surface

area.
 It is expressed as gram per cm2
Significance
 Amount of lead in a grid is a good
indicator of its ability to absorb scattered
radiation provided grid is well designed.

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 Types of grids

 Linear grid
 Crossed grid
 Parallel grid
 Focused grid
 Pseudo focussed grid
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 Linear grid

 Lead strips are parallel to each other in

their longitudinal axis.
 Advantage-: Allow us to angle the x-ray
tube along the length the length of the
grid without the loss of primary
radiation.
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 Crossed grid
 Made up of two superimposed linear
grids.
 Grid ratio = sum of grid ratio of two
linear grids.
 Cannot be used in the techniques
requiring tube angulations
 Used in Biplane Angiography
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 Parallel grid

 Pb strips are parallel when view in

cross section
 These strips are focused at infinity

 Uses : Flouro and spot film device.

Advantages:
 Simple in structure

 Any side of grid can face the x-ray tube

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 Disadvantages

 Geometrical cut off-Allow central ray to

pass but peripheral rays get absorbed
which is oblique in nature
 It results in loss of density along
edges.
 Projection of pb strips wider than they
are.

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 Malposition of Grid

 Tilting of grid results in loss of density

along central band and one side of the
film.
 Incorrect centering produces under
exposed radiographs at the edge away
from tubes displacement .
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 Focused Grid

 Pb strips are arranged to form radii of

circle to which x-ray tube is centered
means pb strips are slightly angled so
that they focused in space.
 It reduces geometric cut off in the areas
away from beam center
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 Disadvantages

 Ranges of FFD in which it can be used

 Anode film distance should not be too
long or too short.
 Manufacturing is difficult
 High ratio grids so high Kv required.
 Only one aspect which faces the tube.
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 Pseudo focused grid
 Pb strips are arranged in parallel fashion
and at the same time is designed to
produce effect of focus grid .
 Hence the name pseudo means false.
Design
Height of pb strips decreases from center
towards periphery .Thus reducing the grid
ratio from center to periphery and giving
the advantage of focus as well linear grid.

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 Evaluation of grid performance

 Primary transmission (Tp)

 Bucky factor(B)

 Contrast improvement factor (K)

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 Primary Transmission

 Measurement of percentage of primary

radiation transmitted through grid.
 Tp=(Ig/Ig0)100
 Ig=Intensity with grid
 Ig0=Intensity without grid
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 Bucky Factor

 It is the ratio of incident radiation

falling on the grid to the transmitted
radiation passing through the grid.

 B=Incident radiation /Transmitted

radiation
 Transmitted radiation are measured
with grid and incident photons are
measured without grid.
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 Cont.

 Advantage-Higher the bucky factor

better the quality of image.

 Disadvantage-Higher the bucky factor

more exposure to pt

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 Factors affecting BF

 Grid Ratio-Higher the grid ratio higher

the bucky factor.
 Beam energy-higher the Beam energy
greater the bucky factor

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 Contrast improvement factor (k)

 K= Contrast with grid / contrast without grid

 Depends upon : Field size, thickness of
phantom and Kv.
 K factor measures grids ability to improve
contrast.
 It is related to lead content and grid ratio so
higher the grid ratio higher the k.

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 Grid Movement

 As grid strips being radio opaque casts its

shadow on film.
 These shadow may not strikes eyes if they are
thin close and uniform but it become difficult to
manufacture and costly too.
 Grid movement is an alternative method by which
grid lines can be disappeared as by movement of
grid blurring of image of pb strips takes place.

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Types of Grid Movements

 Single stroke
 Reciprocating
 Oscillating
 Catapult

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 Single Stroke

 Grid moves continuously across the film.

 Usually it is spring loaded and requires
manual cocking prior to each exposure.
 Total grid movement is usually 2.5 to 5cm.

Pitfalls:
 Difficult to use as they require cocking
before each exposure.
 Seldom used in modern equipment.

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 Reciprocating

 Grid is driven continuously too and fro from one

side of the table to another during exposure.
 Grid is propelled in one direction by the
combination of two springs and speed is kept
constant with an oil dashpot.
Function of oil dashpot:
 To control and smooth the speed of grid.
 To enable adjustments of this speed to be made
from time to time.
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 Oscillating

 Can be obtained by moving the grid on

spring at each corner and giving it
push from time to time, causing it to
vibrate upon springs.
 At first grid moves rapidly after that it
slows down and eventually stops.
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 Catapult grid Movement

 Grid makes one movement across film. Its

initial speed is high than it slows down in an
exponential fashion.
 The exposure is initiated shortly after the
grid began to move.
 Short exposure while grid moving very fast
and longer exposure extends into time when
grid moving very slowly.

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 Catapult grid Movement cont.

 This type of movement ensures

whether the exp is short or long

 It is motor driven

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 Disadvantages of moving grids

 Costly
 Subject to failure
 May vibrate the x-ray table
 Put a minimum limit on exposure time
 Increase patient dose 15% in compare
to stationary grid.
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 Mammography Grid

 The x-ray beam that exist the breast

contain scattered radiation.
 The amount of scattered increases with
thickness and density of breast.
 So focused grid are used to absorb scatter
radiation and to improve quality of image.
 Use of grid allows greater visualization of
breast structure micro calcification in
dense breast.
 Generally 4:1 to 5:1 focused grid ratio with
30 to 50 lines /cm used.
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 Mammography Grid cont.

 Disadvantage :Linear focused grids

reduces the transmission of primary x-

ray as being absorbed by inter space

material.

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 Advancement

 HTC (high transmission cellular

grid):
To overcome the problem of absorption of
the primary radiation by interspace
material the LORAD company of medical
equipment introduced HTC grid for
mammography.

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 Structure:
 Cellular grid is a honey comb shaped grid.
It has a sq. pore with copper septa and air
inter space.
 It has a rigid kind of that is self supporting
so no need of inter space material.
 So no primary radiation absorption takes
place by inter space.
 The HTC grid has copper as grid strip
material
 Physical dimension results in a 3.8:1 grid
ratio
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 Grid cut off

 It is the proportion of primary beam

which the lead strips of grid absorb. It
is affected by thickness of lead strips,
height and spacing.
 More with high ratio grid and short grid
focus distance
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 Grid cut off Cont……………..

There are five different situation that

produce grid cutoff:
1. Focused grid upside down
2. Lateral decentering
3. Focus grid distance decentering
4. Combined lateral and focus grid
distance decentering
5. Off level error
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 Focused Grid upside Down

 All focused grids have tube side which

is the side of focus of pb strips.
 When it is upside down there is severe
peripheral cut off with a dark band of
exposure in the center of the film and
no exposure in the peripheral.
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Focus grid upside down

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 Lateral Decentering

 Results from x-ray tube being

positioned lateral to convergent line
but at the correct focal distance.
 So there is uniform loss of radiation
over entire surface of grids ,producing
uniformly light radiographs.
 This is common type of grids cutoff.

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 Lateral Decentering cont.

There are three Factors which affect it

1. Grid ratio
2. Focal Distance
3. Amount of decentiring
L=(rb)x100/fo
where L=Loss of primary radiation%
r=grid ratio
f=focal distance
b=Lateral decentiring distance
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 Focused grid distance
discentering
 In this target of x-ray tube is correctly
centered to grid but it is positioned
above or below the convergent line.
 If target is above convergent line it is
called Far focus grid distance
decentering.
 If it below than it is called near focus
grid distance decentering.

104
Combined Lateral Focus grid Distance
Decentering
 This is the most commonly recognized
type of grid cut off. It causes an uneven
exposure, lighter on one side and
darker on other side. These are of two
kind depending on the target above or
below .
 The amount of cutoff is directly
proportional to focal distance of grid.

106
 Off level error

 Grid must lie in a plane perpendicular

to the central axis of beam.
 When linear grid is tilted as it
frequently happen in case of portable
radiography there is uniform loss of
primary radiation across entire surface
of film.
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 Grid Selection

 Selection of Grids depends on

interrelated Factors like:
 Types of exam performed
 Kv
 Pt. dose

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 Grids should be selected so that good
quality radiograph obtain keeping pt
dose low eg.
 In mammography Breast dose with and
without grid
 Generally for 50%grandular and 50%
adipose tissue with average thickness
of breast of 4.2 cm
Without grid dose is
 1 to 1.5mGy(100 to 150mrad)per film

With grid
 3mGy (300mrad) per film
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 Cont.

 The dose seems to be double ,yes the

concern about exposure to pt is
important.
 But simultaneously grid selection
however should not be compromised
so far that the loss of contrast
enhancement interferes with diagnostic
Interpretation.
112
 Air Gap Tech

 It is an alternative technique to reduce

the scatter radiation by leaving the gap
b/w the patient and film during
radiography and enhancing
radiographic contrast.
 Aim : To reduce affect of scatter
radiation on the film.
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 Advantage Over grid

 As no absorption of primary radiation

takes place so no need of increasing
the exposure.
Disadvantage
 Due to gap between patient and film
sharpness of the image decreases.
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 Lead foil screens

These can be incorporated at the back of the x-ray

cassette holder for the purpose of protecting the
film from back scatter from the walls and floor.

Lead sheet
To avoid the back scatter reaching to film pb
sheet are also fitted at the back of the cassettes.
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 Conclusion
 Almost all the scattered radiation in
diagnostic radiation comes from the
compton process.
 There is no method to stop the
production of scattered radiation but we
can reduce the formation of scatter and
also we can prevent them to reach the
film.
 Secondary radiation grid is considered
effective way to control it.
118
 Conclusion contd.

 There is no simple rule to choose grid

but some compromise always involved
 So better quality radiograph should be
obtain with moral obligation to keep
pts dose minimum as much as
possible.
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