PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

@ Abnormal psychology
Studies:
◦ The causes, treatment &
consequences of psychological
disorders/ mental illnesses such as
 depression, anxiety & psychoses
ABNORMALITY: Conventional criteria for
defining abnormality
Statistical deviance-
an approach that conceptualizes
abnormality in terms of behaviors that
are extreme, rare/ unique as opposed to
typical
Social norm approach
◦ A rule/ guideline determined by
cultural factors for what kind of
behavior is considered appropriate in
social contexts
 E.g. some governments condemn the
consumption of alcoholics drink, whereas
others have very relaxed attitudes towards
drug
Personal distress
◦ Individual’s level of suffering takes
into consideration and whether they
want to get rid of the suffering
◦ Disadvantages : abnormality is not
always associated with subjective
suffering or the experience of
discomfort
Maladaptiveness
◦ The extent to which behavior
interferes with a person’s capacity
to carry out everyday tasks such as
studying/ relating to others
 E.g. anxiety disorders such as phobias, panic
attack & obsessive-compulsive disorder
 HISTORICAL
HIPPOCRATES, the Greek
philosopher & physician credited with
the invention of medicine, believed in
the connection between psychological
& physical disorders
He explained pathologies which were
common disorders in ancient Greek
society.
PLATO: disorders are
intrapsychical (all in the mind)
conflicts & embedded in some
of the salient psychogenic
theories of abnormal
psychology.
“All in the mind”
Psychopathology did not develop as
major area of psychology until the
beginnings of the twentieth century
Symptoms were regarded as the
expression of supernatural forces that
controlled the individual’s mind &
body
◦ Treated through obscure rituals –
Exorcism & shamanism
Ancient Egyptians: have special
temples for the mentally ill &
performed rituals & included the
use of opium to reduce pain.
Behavioral abnormalities treated
with violence
Mentally ill individuals were
marginalized
Nolen- Hoeksema, (2001)- in 1484 -
“possessed” individuals to be burned
alive.
Bedlam, established in 1243- 1800,
the first formal attempt at
psychopathological hospitalization
1970, Phillippe Pinel (1745-1826)
proposed the moral treatment for
mental disorders & categorize
symptoms.
Modern Approaches
Somatogenic by Wilhelm Griesinger (1817-1868)
 Brain pathology was the cause of all mental
disorders
Emil Kraepelin (1856-1926)- first classification of
symptoms, labeling and describing different
psychological disorders
Case Phineas Gage- how structural changes in
the brain may impair normal psychological
functioning
Franz Anton Mesmer )(1734-1815)
believed psychological disorders to be the
expression of psychical rather than
physical factors & caused by ‘magnetic
fluids’ – astrological energy force inside
people’s body.
Developed a hypnotic method -
mesmerism
Jean Martin Charcot (1825-1893)
believed that psychological disorders
were caused by a degeneration of
the brain, nonetheless experimented
with mesmerism.
◦ Found that patients experienced
substantial relief after being able to talk
about their symptoms under hypnosis.
◦ Catharsis
 Psychoanalysis & Psychodynamic
theories
Freud’s studies hysterical disorder
Development of psychoanalysis/
psychodynamics (exploration of the
unconscious)
Unconscious intrapsychical origin to mental
ilness.
All behaviors are influenced by unconscious
processes
Used to understand human behavior (philosophy,
literature & sociology)
Psychopathological symptoms as a
compromise between unconscious and
conscious forces that represents a
symbolic expression or repressed events.
Treatments may last for 10/20 years
Based on case studies & is largely
untestable
Based on circular interpretations &
speculative theories not robust &
representative empirical evidence
 Behaviorism
In the first half of the twentieth century
while psychoanalysis was gaining
momentum in Europe
Study of empirically observable
behavior
Uninterested in hypothetical
psychodynamic conflicts
Symptoms would be a consequence of
reinforcing/ punishing specific
behaviors
Witmer (1867-1956) imported to the
US the techniques he learned in
Germany from Wilhelm Wundt
◦ First experimental clinic - study of the
deficiencies in children
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) & John
Watson (1878-1958) applied the
principles of classic conditioning to the
study of phobias
Thorndike (1874-1949) &
Skinner (1904-1909) =
rewarding desirable behaviors
was more effective than
punishing undesirable ones
(operant conditioning)
Cognitive
Emerged in 1960s & 1970s-
attempted to understand the internal
mental processes (cognitions)
People’s subjective interpretations of
events can have a direct impact on
their behavior & emotion.
Bandura (1896)
conceptualized this idea as self
efficacy
◦ (individual’s belief about the extent to
which they can successfully execute the
appropriate behaviors to control &
influence important life events)
Ellis (1973)= Rational Emotive Therapy,
conceptualizes illness as the result of
irrational negative beliefs about oneself &
the world

Dryden & DiGiuseppe (1990), role of

therapist= changes in the patient’s beliefs
 Biological approaches
Divided into :
Nerophysiology- dealing with the
processes/ functions of the brain.
Neuroanatomy- dealing with the structure
of the brain
Neurotransmitter (chemical messenger that
carry information between neurons & other
cells
◦ Imbalance = psychological disorders
 ◦ E.g.
 Serotonin affects emotion & impulse regulation ;
 dopamine levels have been linked to psychosis &
schizophrenia
Endocrine system (production &
release of hormones) in the blood =
affect mood, levels of energy &
reactions to stress
 The Biophychosocial Model
A multidisciplinary approach to
psychopathology based on the idea that
mental illness results from
combination of biological,
psychological, environmental &
social factors.
Diathesis- stress model (some people
possess an enduring, inherited
vulnerability which is likely to result
in psychological disorder when they
experience an unbearable life event )
Diagnosis
2 frameworks:
1) Idiographic
◦ adopted by psychoanalytic &
psychodynamic theories)
◦ Emphasizes the singularity of mental
illness
◦ Assumes psychological disorders to be
manifested differently in every
individual
2) Nomothetic
 preestablished categories &
compare every case with
previously defined, described &
classified psychological disorders
2taxonomies diagnosing
mental disorders:
 ICD- International Classification of
Diseases, Injuries & Causes of death
(WHO,1992)
 DSM- Diagnostic & Statistical
Manual Of Mental Disorder
(APA,1994)
Diagnosis in DSM are based on:
◦ Some core symptoms that need to be
present
◦ Prespecified periods of time for
symptoms to be present &
sometimes
◦ Symptoms that should not be present
 Major Psychological Disorders
Schizophrenia
Psychotic disorder characterized by
the patient’s lack of insight & loss of
contact with reality & episodic
Unable to distinguish between inner
& external reality
Severe thinking & perception
impairment
Syndromes:
◦ Hallucinations (fake perceptions)
◦ Delusions (false beliefs)
◦ Disorganized speech
◦ Disorganized behavior
◦ Negative symptoms
◦ Passivity
◦ Neurocognitive deficits
Experience more than one of the
syndromes
Conceptualized by Kraepelin as
‘early madness’
Not involved double personality &
aggressive manner
Types : catatonic, hebephrenic &
paranoid…residual &
undifferentiated
Catatonic-Kinetic abnormalities
Hebephrenic-Disorganized thought disorder
& decreased affect
Paranoid- vivid & horrifying hallucinations
(thought disorder & disorganized behavior)
Residual- Positive symptoms (the presence
of something unusual-delusions,
hallucinations & thought disorder)
Undifferentiated- Symptoms which are not
representative of any other type of
schizophrenia
Treated by antipsychotic/
neuroleptic drugs
Cognitive therapy +
antipsychotic drugs can help
to reduce hallucination &
delusions
 Affective Disorders
Exaggerated intensity of mood
experiences throughout long periods of
time
Unrelated/ disproportionate reactions
to external life real- life events
Depression- persistent low mood (e.g.
speech reduction, lack of joy, often
suicidal, feeling of guilt, pessimistic)
◦ Learned helplessness & hopelessness
Mania- opposite extreme of affect than
depression
◦ Exacerbated elevated mood & an
inappropriate sense of well-being
◦ E.g. Optimism, over confidence
◦ Abnormal talk & speech (e.g. inconsistency &
incoherent)
◦ Psychotic symptoms (delusions of grandeur)
◦ Manic behavior- over activity & increased
sexual & aggressive impulses
 Treated with lithium & antipsychotics
& hospitalization
 Anxiety disorders & obsessional states
Experience of high levels of
anxiety
Anxiety can be experienced
psychologically (e.g. unpleasant &
dreadful feelings) & somatically
(muscular tension & increased
heart attack)
Common anxiety disorders is phobias
(experience of irrational/ disproportionate
fear of an object/ phobic stimulus that
leads individual to avoid contact with that
object)

Treatment: systematic desensitization

(progressive exposure to the phobic
object)
Causes of phobias
Psychodynamic-conflict between
unconscious sexual/ aggressive
impulses & social/culture norms
Behaviors- induced in humans as in
animals through association &
conditioning
Cognitive- sensitive/ have more
vulnerable schemas to interpret events
Obsessive-compulsive disorder-
a disorder characterized by intense
& repetitive obsessions that
generate anxiety
Tends to start in early adulthood
Rituals to relieve the individual
from anxiety
 Eating disorders
Exacerbated worry about food, body shape,
weight & related physical symptoms
Related to cultural, economic & social
factors- experience of anxiety
Anorexia
◦ 1. a serious & permanent concern about one’s
body shape, weight & thinness,
◦ 2. an active pursuit & maintenance of low body
weight,
◦ 3. the absence of menstrual periods in female-
disturbance of hormonal status
Associated with anxiety – fail to stop
from eating.
Anorexia individuals – quiet,
unassertive, anxious, and sexually
inexperienced.
◦ Also tend to be ambitious and
achievement-oriented, but have low self
esteem.
Bulimia nervosa- person to
indulge in alcohol & drugs
consumption
Treatment:
◦ psychotherapy &
psychopharmacological drugs
◦ group/ family in treatment
 Personality Disorders
A persistent pattern of thinking, feeling
& behaving that deviates from cultural
expectations & impairs a person’s
educational, occupational &
interpersonal functioning
Begins at early age, are stable over
time & are pervasive & inflexible
DSM
Cluster A: antisocial, borderline,
narcissistic & histrionic- odd & eccentric
behaviors as well as disregard for others
Cluster B: schizotypal, schizoid &
paranoid- dramatic, erratic & emotional
behavior
Cluster C- avoidant, obsessive-compulsive,
dependent & passive-aggressive-anxious
&fearful behaviors
Combination of the Big 5 with
personality disorder
+ve correlation: Neuroticism (N)
-ve correlation: Agreeableness (A) &
Conscientiousness ©
Variable in direction & strength:
Extraversion (E) & Openness (O)
E.g. Histrionic personality disorder-
higher in E, avoidant personality disorder-
lower in E
 Conclusions
Modern conceptualizations of
normality are based on statistical
frequency, personal distress, social
norms & maladaptiveness
Diagnostic approach: clinical
psychology & psychiatry
Causes of psychological
disorders: genetics
dispositions (schizophrenia),
situational demands

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