Objectives

• 4.2.2 Current

• State that current is related to the flow of charge

• Use and describe the use of an ammeter, both analogue
and digital
• State that current in metals is due to a flow of electrons
• Show understanding that a current is a rate of flow of
charge and recall and use the equation I = Q/t
• Distinguish between the direction of flow of electrons and
conventional current
Electrical Charge
 Electrical Charge

• Electrical Charge is measured in Coulombs

(C)
• A current of 1 amp equals 1 coulomb of
charge flowing per second
• Current is the rate of flow of charge
• Q = It
– Q = charge (C, Coulombs)
– I = current (A, Amps)
– t = time (s, seconds)
Electrical Charge

Q = It

Q=?
I = 0.3A
t = 20s

Q = It
Q = 0.3 x 20
Q=6C
Electrical Charge

Q = It

Q = 360C
I=?
t = 400s

Q = It
I = Q/t
I = 360/400
I = 0.9A
METALLIC PROPERTIES - CONDUCTION
Metals are excellent conductors of electricity

The conduction of electricity requires either mobile ions or electrons

Metals have a mobile ELECTRON CLOUD

 Ammeters

Connect in series
Break the circuit and
insert the ammeter
Ammeters
Current in a series circuit
Current (I, measured in amps) in
a series circuit is the same at all
points.
The current is never used up
The electrons carry energy to the
components
Conventional current shows the
flow of positive charge in a circuit
(this is for historical reasons),
this is what the arrow represents.
Note the longer end of the cell is
the positive end.
 Complete:

Q I t

60 C 2A 30 s
65 C 13 A 5s

960 C 4A 4 minutes

3C 50 mA 60 s
Component
Symbols
 Circuit symbols

cell a cell is required to push

electrons around a circuit

battery a battery consists of two or

more cells
wire wires should always been drawn
as straight lines
wire junction

switch a switch enables the current in

a circuit to be turned on or off
 Circuit symbols

indicator often a light bulb – this is used to

show whether or not a circuit is on

light bulb old symbol – the indicator symbol

is now used

A ammeter measures electric current in

amperes (A)
V voltmeter measures voltage in volts (V)
 Question

Draw a circuit diagram for

a torch.
Series vs Parallel
 Series Circuit

This circuit shows two lamps connected in series.

The current flows through one lamp after the other.

 Parallel Circuits

This circuit shows two lamps connected in parallel.

The current splits, and flows equally through the two

separated arms of the circuit.
Parallel Circuits
The lights on
Christmas trees are
often arranged in
series.
If one lamp goes
out, all the others go
out.
The brightness of
the bulbs is affected
by the number of
lamps in the circuit.
The lights in a house are
arranged in parallel.
If one lamp goes out, all the
others are unaffected.
The brightness of the bulbs
is not affected by the
number of lamps
in the circuit.
Current in a
series circuit
Current in a series circuit

Current (I, measured in amps)

in a series circuit is the same
at all points.
The current is never used up
The electrons carry energy to
the components
Conventional current shows
the flow of positive charge in a
circuit (this is for historical
reasons), this is what the arrow
represents.
Note the longer end of the cell
is the positive end.
 I

A1 A2
R1 R2 R3

•Analogy - ping pong balls - electrons

•All start moving at once
•The speed of impulse is the speed of the particles
•Resistance anywhere along the tube limits flow everywhere
 Current in a
parallel circuit
Current in a parallel circuit

Parallel circuits contain

branches
Some of the current passes
through both of the branches
The current splits and then
rejoins
The current in the branches
adds up to the total current
leaving the cell
What is the current in the lower branch?
What is the current leaving the cell?
 Kirchhoff's Laws.
• The sum of all currents entering a junction is equal to the
sum of currents leaving a junction.
• The current I(1) = I(2) + I(3) + I(4)
Kirchhoff's Law Questions:
Voltage (potential
difference)
 Count Alessandro Volta
In 1800, Volta developed what is known as the
voltaic pile, which produced a steady flow of
electrical current. This formed the basis of the
modern electric battery.
_

Zinc
Copper

Card soaked
in brine
Alessandro Volta (1745 -1827)

From his experiments Volta discovered the most

effective pair of metals to be zinc and silver, between
which was placed card soaked in brine - the brine acted
as the electrolyte.
To minimise the cost of Voltaic piles, silver was usually
replaced with copper. +
 Voltage (Potential Difference)
• A potential difference of 1 volt tells us that
1 joule of energy is transferred for each
coloumb of charge that flows
• This energy is transferred in circuits to the
circuit components e.g. lamps, resistors.
The potential energy changes into light,
heat sound etc
• The voltage is said to 'drop', there are a
series of 'voltage drops' as the current
passes through components
Voltage (potential difference)
Voltage (Potential Difference)

The total energy here

is shared between the
two lamps so they are
dimmer than if there
was one only
Voltage (potential difference)

The total energy here

is the same in each
branch, the current
splits at the junction
and the electrons
entering each branch
have the same initial
energy, so the lamps
are of equal
brightness
Voltage (potential difference)
Using a Voltmeter
Analogue vs Digital Voltmeters
Digital Multi-meters
Measuring Voltage
Connect Voltmeters in parallel
Across components
 Measuring Voltage

Connect Voltmeters in parallel

Across components
Measuring Voltage and Current

• What kind of circuits are these?

• What is being measured?
• Which is the easiest to measure?
Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
When components are _________
connected together in series they will
all have the same _________
current flowing through each of them.

When components are connected in parallel to each other

they will each have the same _________.
voltage

Lamps are usually connected in __________

parallel to each other as
this allows them to be controlled individually by _________
switches
and if one lamp _______
blows the others can still continue to
operate.
WORD SELECTION:

blows current switches parallel connected voltage

 Current and Voltage in Circuits
1. Describe how electric current flows through a metallic
conductor.
2. (a) State the equation in words and symbol form relating
electric current to charge. (b) Calculate the charge that flows
when a current of 5A flows for 40 seconds.
3. (a) What is meant by voltage? (b) How much energy will a
12V battery supply to a charge of 4 coulombs?
4. Draw the circuit symbols for: (a) battery; (b) diode; (c) bulb;
(d) fuse; (e) variable resistor; (f) LDR; (g) thermistor.
5. List the differences between series and parallel circuit
connection. Give an advantage for each case.
6. Why are LEDs used in preference to light bulbs?
Resistance
 4.2.5 Resistance
• State that resistance = p.d./current and understand qualitatively
how changes in p.d. or resistance affect current
• Recall and use the equation R = V/I
• Describe an experiment to determine resistance using a
voltmeter and an ammeter
• Relate (without calculation) the resistance of a wire to its length
and to its diameter
• Sketch and explain the current-voltage characteristic of an
ohmic resistor and a filament lamp
• Recall and use quantitatively the proportionality between
resistance and length, and the inverse proportionality between
resistance and cross-sectional area of a wire
Resistance
V = IR
 Resistance

• Resistance is the transfer of electrical

energy to other forms of energy
• e.g. in a lamp....
– electrical energy changes into heat and light
• Resistance occurs because electrons collide
with atoms as they pass through the circuit
producing heat
 Resistance
In 1826 he found that for a fixed temperature,
the current flowing through a resistor is directly
proportional to the potential difference across
the resistor.

Georg Simon
Ohm
(1789 - 1854)
V = IR

V = IR

V = Voltage (V)
I = Current (A)
R = Resistance (Ώ)

V = IR

V=5
I=?
R = 100

V = IR
I = V/R
I = 5 / 100 = 0.05 A
V = IR

V = IR

V = Voltage (V)
I = Current (A)
R = Resistance (Ώ)

V = IR

V = 20
I=?
R = 100 + 50

V = IR
I = V/R
I = 20 / 150 = 0.13 A
V = IR

V = IR

V = Voltage (V)
I = Current (A)
R = Resistance (Ώ)

V = IR

V = 10
I=?
R = 20 + 15 +10

V = IR
I = V/R
I = 10 / 45 = 0.22 A
V = IR

V = IR

V = Voltage (V)
I = Current (A)
R = Resistance (Ώ)

V = IR

V=?
I = 0.5
R = 200 + 75

V = IR
V = 0.5 x 275 =
137.5V
 Resistors in Parallel

The total resistance

of resistors in
parallel is smaller
that the value of
the smallest
resistor.
You don't need to
know how to
calculate the total
resistance in parallel
The total resistance in this circuits
circuit must be lower than....
 Complete:
V I R
20 V 4A 5Ω
200 V 5A 40 Ω
300 V 0.20
6A 50 Ω
8V 500 mA 16 Ω
3 kV 20 A 150 Ω

120 V 4 mA 30 kΩ
 Resistors in Parallel
“In a parallel circuit voltage stays the same
IT
but current splits up”

I1 I2 IT = I1 + I2
IT = V
RT
R1 R2 V
V = V + V
RT R 1 R2
1 = 1 + 1
IT RT R1 R2
 Example questions
Calculate the equivalent resistance:
Questions
 Question 1
What is the Total resistance?

5 7 11 

20.0 V

What is the total resistance?

R tot = R1 + R2 + R3 ...

R tot = 5  + 7  + 11  = 23 
 Question 2

5 7 11 

A2 A1

20 V

What is the reading on both ammeters?

I=V
R
I = 20 V
23 Ω
I = 0.870 A
Current is equal at all points in a series circuit
 Question 3
V1 V2

5 7 11 

20.0 V

What do the voltmeters read?

V = IR
V1 = 5 × 0.8696 A = 4.35 V
V2 = 18 × 0.8696 A = 15.7 V
Voltage splits across components in a series circuit
 Question 4
V1 V2

5 11  9

35 V 13  3

V3
What do the voltmeters read?
V = IR
Rtotal = 41  and therefore I = 0.8537 A
V1 = 5 × 0.8537 A = 4.27 V
V2 = 20 × 0.8537 A = 17.1 V
V3 = 13 × 0.8537 A = 11.1 V
 What do the voltmeters
Questionread?5(3 SF)

V1 V2

500  200  90 

V3 110 

120 V 130 

What are the readings on the voltmeters?

V = IR
Rtotal = 1030 , I = 0.1165 A
V1 = 500 ×0.1165 A = 58.3 V
V2 = 90 ×0.1165 A = 10.5 V
V3 = 330 ×0.1165 A = 38.4 V
Think!
Is this a series or a parallel circuit?
Voltmeters have a very high
resistance, no current flows
through them, so it is a series
circuit
 Question 6
V1

5 7 ??? 

20 V

I=V
R
What is the value of the
I = 3.17 V = 0.634 A
mystery resistor if V1
5
reads 3.17 V? Rtot = V = 20 V = 31.55 
I 0.634 A
Rtot = 5  + 7  + ?? = 31.55 
??? = 19.5 
Resistivity
 Resistivity
Some values of ρ in Ωm at 20oC
Silver 1.59E-8
A Copper 1.68E-8
Gold 2.44E-8
Aluminium 2.65E-8
L Tungsten 5.6 E-8
Iron 9.71E-8
Platinum 10.6E-8
R = ρL Nichrome 100E-8
(alloy of Ni, Fe, Cr)
A
ρ - Resistivity in Ωm
L - Length of the wire in m
A - Cross sectional area of the wire (πr2)
R - Resistance of the wire in Ohms
 Resistivity
A copper wire is 1610 m long and has a cross
sectional area of 4.5 x 10-6 m2. What is its
resistance? (This wire is 2.4 mm in diameter)
R = ?? Some values of ρ in Ωm at 20oC
ρ = 1.68E-8 Ωm Silver 1.59E-8
L = 1610 m Copper 1.68E-8
Gold 2.44E-8
R = ρL and A = πr2 Aluminium 2.65E-8
A Tungsten 5.6 E-8
Iron 9.71E-8
R= ρL Platinum 10.6E-8
π(d÷2)2 Nichrome 100E-8
(alloy of Ni, Fe, Cr)
R= 1.68E-8 × 1610
3.14×((2.4E-3)÷2)2

R = 6.0 Ω
 Resistivity
An Aluminium wire is 3.2 mm in diameter, and has
a resistance of 142 ohms. What length is it?
R = ρL and A = πr2
A
Some values of ρ in Ωm at 20oC
R = 142 Ω Silver 1.59E-8
ρ = 2.65E-8 Ωm Copper 1.68E-8
L = ?? Gold 2.44E-8
d = 3.2E-3 Aluminium 2.65E-8
A = π(1.6E-3)2 Tungsten 5.6 E-8
Iron 9.71E-8
R= ρL Platinum 10.6E-8
π(d÷2)2 Nichrome 100E-8
(alloy of Ni, Fe, Cr)
L= Rπ(d÷2)2
ρ

L = 43,000 m
 Resistivity
A piece of wire has a diameter of 0.42 mm, and a
length of 53 cm. What is its resistivity if it has a
resistance of 4.9 ohms? (what kind of wire is it?)
R = ρL and A = πr2
A Some values of ρ in Ωm at 20oC
Silver 1.59E-8
R = 4.9 Ω Copper 1.68E-8
ρ = ?? Gold 2.44E-8
L = 0.53 m Aluminium 2.65E-8
d = 0.42E-3 Tungsten 5.6 E-8
A = π(0.21E-3)2 Iron 9.71E-8
Platinum 10.6E-8
R= ρL Nichrome 100E-8
π(d÷2)2 (alloy of Ni, Fe, Cr)

ρ= Rπ(d÷2)2
L

ρ = 130x10-8 Ωm, so it is nichrome

 Resistivity - Thermal Effects

R = ρL Some values of ρ in Ωm at 20oC

A Silver 1.59E-8
Copper 1.68E-8
Gold 2.44E-8
Aluminium 2.65E-8
Resistivity (ρ) increases Tungsten 5.6 E-8
with temperature. Iron 9.71E-8
(random motion, electrons) Platinum 10.6E-8
Nichrome 100E-8
(alloy of Ni, Fe, Cr)
More Circuit
Symbols
 Circuit symbols
cell a cell is required to push
electrons around a circuit

battery a battery consists of two or

more cells
wire wires should always been drawn
as straight lines
wire junction

switch a switch enables the current in

a circuit to be turned on or off
 Circuit symbols

indicator often a light bulb – this is used to

show whether or not a circuit is on

light bulb old symbol – the indicator symbol

is now used

A ammeter measures electric current in

amperes (A)
V voltmeter measures voltage in volts (V)
 Circuit symbols
fixed a resistor is used to limit
resistor the current in a circuit

variable
resistor

thermistor a device whose resistance

decreases with temperature

light dependent a device whose

resistor (LDR) resistance decreases
with brightness
 Circuit symbols

diode a diode only allows current to flow in

one direction (indicated by the arrow)

light emitting a diode that emits light when

diode (LED) it allows the flow of electric
current

fuse a fuse is designed to melt and so break

an electric circuit when too much
electric current flows
heater a device used to convert
electrical energy to heat
 Complete
symbol component symbol component

A ammeter heater

diode resistor

indicator thermistor

cell LDR
 Complete

resistor battery LDR cell diode fuse

lamp switch thermistor ammeter variable voltmeter

resistor
Current/Voltage
Graphs
 Resistors and Potential

What happens to
the resistance if we
increase the P.D.?

This means the resistance is constant!

This is an Ohmic conductor
It is only true if the temperature is
constant
Resistors and Potential

use V=IR
explain the shape...

This is NOT an Ohmic conductor

At high temperatures the extreme left and right of the graph
the resistance is higher, it requires more energy to push
electrons over the hot metal atoms
Resistors and Potential
Resistors and Potential - Lamps
Diodes
Resistors and Potential - Diodes
 LED, LDR,
Thermistor
LED
LDR
LDR
Thermistor
 Alternative Graphs (I/V)

I I
HOT BRIGHT

COLD DIM

V V
Thermistors and computer fans

Use V = IR
to explain when
the fan turns on
Practicals
Required Pracitcal - Resistance
Required Pracitcal - Resistance
Required Pracitcal - Resistance
 Required Practical - Current/PD Characteristic

What does the graph look like? See above

What should you avoid doing? Avoid leaving the circuit connected for a
long time as the temperature will increase
 Required Practical - Current/PD Characteristic

What does the graph look like? See above

How do you run the experiment? Change the variable resistance and record
V and I, make sure to use a switch
Plot a graph
 Required Practical - Current/PD Characteristic

What does the graph look like? See above

Power and
Energy
 4.2.6 Electrical Working

• Understand that electric circuits transfer energy

from the battery or power source to the circuit
components then into the surroundings
• Recall and use the equations P = IV and E = IVt
Energy Transfer
Energy transfer
Energy transfer
Energy transfer
Energy Transfer
by Components
Energy Transfer

E = QV

E = ?J
Q = 4C
V = 15V

E = QV
E = 4 x 15
E = 60 J

What equation is produced if

you substitute for Q?
because Q = It
→ E = IVt
Energy Transfer

E = QV = IVt

E = ?J
Q = 3C
V = 30-25 = 5V

E = QV = IVt
E=3x5
E = 15 J
 Complete:

Voltage Energy Charge

12V 480J 40C

20V 500J 25C

6V 120J 20C

230V 69kJ 300C

 Complete:

P I V t E
50W
1 10A 5V 4s 200J
2

100W 2A
3 50V 8s
4 800J

90W
5 3A 30V
6 5s 450J

2kW 8A
7 250V 3 min 360
8 kJ
 Example questions.
• 1) A dog runs around a yard. It transforms 500J in 4 seconds.
Calculate its power.

• 2) A horse runs round a field. It transforms 2kJ of energy in in 5

seconds. Calculate the power of the house.
 
• 3) A 4kW TV is left on for 30 minutes. How much energy does it
transfer?
 
• 4) A 60W bulb is left on for 8 hours. How much energy does it
transfer?
 
• 5) A 5kW fire transfers 50 000 Joules of energy into a room. How
long is it left on for?
 
• 6) A 200W TV transfers 36 000J of energy. How many minutes was it
turned on?
 Answers to questions:
• 1) A dog runs around a yard. It transforms 500J in 4 seconds.
Calculate its power.
• P = Energy / Time = 500/4 = 125W
• 2) A horse runs round a field. It transforms 2kJ of energy in in 5
seconds. Calculate the power of the house.
• P = Energy / Time = 2000/5 = 400W
• 3) A 4kW TV is left on for 30 minutes. How much energy does it
transfer?
• E = Pxt = 4000x1800 = 7 200 000J
• 4) A 60W bulb is left on for 8 hours. How much energy does it
transfer?
• E = Pxt = 60x28800 = 1 728 000J 
• 5) A 5kW fire transfers 50 000 Joules of energy into a room. How
long is it left on for?
• t = E/P = 50000/5000 = 10 seconds 
• 6) A 200W TV transfers 36 000J of energy. How many minutes was it
turned on?
• t = E/P = 36000/200 = 180 seconds = 3mins
Power and Energy
Power and Energy
Power and Energy
Power and Energy
Power and Energy
 Complete:

Electrical Time Power

energy used
600 J 20 s
30 W
15 s 500 W
7 500 J
800 J 20 W
40 s
60 kJ 10 minutes
100 W
 Complete:

I V P
5A 230 V
1150 W
230 V 460 W
2A
4A 12 V 48 W

200 mA 6V 1.2 W
 Paying for electricity
An electricity meter is used
to measure the usage of
electrical energy.

The meter measures in

kilowatt-hours (kWh)

A kilowatt-hour is the
electrical energy used by a
device of power one
kilowatt in one hour.
 Calculating cost
1 . Calculate kilowatt-hours used from:
kilowatt-hours = kilowatts x hours

2 . Calculate cost using:

cost in pence = kilowatt-hours x cost per kWh

Electricity currently costs about 12p per kWh

The Electricity Meter

An electricity meter
measures the amount of
electricity used in units called
kilowatt-hours (kWh) or units.

A kilowatt-hour is the amount

of energy used by a 1 kilowatt
appliance in 1 hour.
 The Electricity Meter

A modern meter is electronic and many people find them easier

to read than the traditional meters.

Modern electronic meters still use the kilowatt-hour as the

basic unit of chargeable electricity.
 The Cost of Keeping Warm
Calculate the cost of the electricity used when a
2kW heater is switched on maximum for 90
minutes...
90 minutes = 1.5 hours

E = P x t

E = 2kW x 1.5h

E = 3kWh

E = 3 units

To calculate the cost of running the heater for 90 minutes, we

need to multiply the total number of units by the cost per unit
(10p). 3 units x 10p = 30p
 The Cost of Cooking a Meal
Calculate the cost of the electricity when a hob
uses an average of 0.25kW for 3 hours. Cost
per unit = 10p.

E = P x t

E = 0.25kW x 3h

E = 0.75kWh

E = 0.75 units

Cost = 0.75 x 10p

= 7.5p
 The Cost of Making Toast
A toaster has a power rating of 1.5kW.
If the toaster is used for 5 minutes every
day, and the electricity cost per unit =
10p, then how much would it cost to
make toast for a week?
5 minutes a day is 35 minutes a week
E = P x t

E = 1.5kW x 35/60h

E = 0.875kWh Cost = 0.875 x 10p

E = 0.875 units = 8.75p

Assuming each unit is 10p, it would cost you 8.75p for the
electricity to make toast for a week.
 The Cost of Drying Your Hair
How much more expensive is it to dry long hair
than short hair? Two hairdryers each have a
power rating of 1kW.
Short hair takes about 6 minutes to dry while long
hair can take anything up to 20 minutes. Calculate
the difference in cost between drying long and short
hair. Cost per unit = 10p

Short Hair
E = P x t
E = 1.0kW x 0.1h
E = 0.1kWh
E = 0.1 units
Cost = 0.1 x 10p = 1p
 Question 1
Calculate the cost of using an electric heater of power
2kW for 5 hours if each kWh costs 12p.

kilowatt-hours = kilowatts x hours

= 2kW x 5 hours
= 10 kWh
cost in pence = kilowatt-hours x cost per kWh
= 10 kWh x 12p
= 120p
cost of using the heater = £1.20
 Question 2
Calculate the cost of using a mobile phone charger
power 10W for 6 hours if each kWh costs 12p.

kilowatt-hours = kilowatts x hours

= 10W x 6 hours
= 0.01 kW x 6 hours
= 0.06 kWh
cost in pence = kilowatt-hours x cost per kWh
= 0.06 kWh x 12p
cost of using the heater = 0.72p
 Electricity bill

Calculate the cost of the electricity that

you use over a three month period (90
days).
Typical power values:
energy efficient light bulb – 15 W
desk-top computer – 300 W
hairdryer – 2 kW
television – 100 W
charger – 10 W
Example: light bulb used for 4 hours per day:
kWh = (0.015 x 4 x 90) = 5.4 kWh; cost = 5.4 x 12p = 64.8p
Static Electricity
 Static Electricity
First discovered by Greeks in 600BC
They found that rubbing things together can produce an
attractive force

Amber could attract hair

 Static Electricity

← Atomic structure

Atoms can gain or lose

electrons by rubbing, these
charges remain if the material
is an insulator →
Charge

Both objects are neutral they have

equal numbers of positive and
negative charges
Charge
Electrons transfer because of
friction when the balloon is rubbed
on the jumper.

The jumper holds its electrons

less strongly than the balloon
so the jumper loses electrons

Unlike charges attract, so the

balloon sticks to the jumper

Only insulators can be charged

by friction
 Induction

The charged comb Charged balloon

attracts the column of attracted to a wall
water This boy’s hair has all the
same type of charge!
Induction
Induction
 Induction
of an
Electroscope
Note: the electroscope
is metal, it can be
charge by induction, it
would be impossible
to charge it by friction
 Induction
of an
Electroscope
 Induction
of an
Electroscope
 Charge

Charge is measured in Coulombs (C)

The smallest possible charge is that of an electron,
• = -1.6 x 10-19C
Induction experiment

Are you able to discuss:

• What happens in this experiment?
• Why it happens?
 Benjamin Franklin
Lightning is a form of electricity
Triboelectric Series
Field lines
• never cross
• are a representation, they are not real
• a higher density of lines suggests a stronger field
• start at 90o to the object making them
 Electric Field

Electric Field
definition:
An electric field is a region
where an electric charge
experiences an electric
force.
Spray Painting
Ink-jet Printer

Spots of ink are given an electric

charge as they leave the ink
nozzle.
The deflecting plates cause the
drops to hit the right part of the
paper.
The charges on the deflecting
plates change many times per
second so that each drop hits the
paper in a different position.
Refueling
Photocopier
Photocopier
Smoke Precipitator
Clouds develop a charge as they move
past each other
The negative charge low in the thunder cloud
induces a positive charge on tall trees and
buildings.
This p.d. creates a strong electrostatic field
in the air between the clouds and the ground.
Eventually, the electrons jump across to
Earth.
 Lightning Conductors
Tall buildings are at risk of a
lightning strike during
thunderstorms.
To prevent damage, lightning
conductors are fitted.
A lightning conductor provides
an easy, harmless path to the
ground.
 Lightning Storm
Lightning can cause a surge in the electricity supply and
unprotected equipment can be literally ‘burnt out’. Fires can
often be caused in the home or workplace by lightning affecting
the electricity supply. Upto 20,000A of current are produced in
lightning.

A wrist strap

Microchip damaged by an electrical

surge during a lightning storm
Conductors and Insulators
 Electrical conductors and insulators
Electrical insulators have a very high resistance to the flow of electric
current.
All metals are conductors. Complete the table below:

copper conductor
rubber insulator
1

steel conductor
2

mercury conductor
3

paper insulator
plastic insulator
4

diamond insulator
5

graphite conductor
6
D.C. and A.C.
 DC and AC Current

a.c. power supply

~

Direct current always flows Alternating current

the same way constantly changes
direction.
a.c. in the uk has a frequency
of 50Hz and a voltage of 230V
DC Current
AC Current
DC and AC Current
Wiring in Plugs
 Wiring in a Plug

Earth

Neutral Live
(Blue-left) (Brown-right)
This completes Carries the
the circuit the P.D. alternating P.D
is zero compared from the power
to the live wire supply
Wiring in a plug

Touching the
live wire can be
fatal, it always
has a P.D. of
230V compared
to earth even if
the switch is
open, so the
fuse is always
on the live wire
 The EARTH wire
Is connected to the metal casing of a
device.

The other end of this wire is

connected to a metal rod or pipe that
goes into the ground below a
building.

Appliances that have plastic cases,

for example hairdryers, do not need
the earth wire connection.

EARTH
Grounding

If the live wire

becomes loose and
touches the metal
case, then the current
will be carried to the
earth wire, because
the current will be
very high it will melt
the fuse shutting off
the current
 Materials used in plugs, sockets and wires

BRASS – Hard rigid metal and electrical conductor

– used for plug pins and socket terminals

COPPER – Flexible electrical conductor

– used for the wires

PLASTIC – Hard rigid electrical insulator

– used to make the plug and socket

RUBBER – Soft flexible electrical insulator

– used for wire insulation
 Safety aspects for the plug

• Why is the case made from plastic or rubber?

• It is a good insulator and stops electrical current from lowing into you.
• Why so we have insulation around a wire?
• To reduce the risk of electrical current passing where it shouldn’t be.
• Why are the wires made from copper?
• Copper is a good conductor and electricity will flow through it easily.
• Why are the pins made from brass?
• Brass is a good conductor and is strong.
 Label this diagram

5. live

1. earth

4. fuse
2. neutral

3. cable grip
 What is wrong with this plug’s wiring?
Earth wire not connected

Wire untidily connected –

some bare strands of wire
showing
Live and neutral wires
swopped over

Cable grip not gripping the

outer plastic insulator

Note: The appliance connected with this plug would

probably still work but it would be very dangerous to use!
 Answers
Complete:
All of the devices below are 230V mains appliances.
Device and Normal Fuse choice from:
power (W) current (A) 3A, 5A or 13A
Computer; 300W
1.3 A 3A
Microwave; 900W
Charger; 10W
3.9 A 5A
Heater; 2kW
0.04A 3A
8.7A 13A
Maximum power? 13A 13A
2990W
Protect an appliance
(and yourself) by using
a fuse with a value just
higher than the current
flowing through the
device.
P = VI
Solutions to questions:
National Grid
National Grid

Energy is lost in
electrical resistance
in the wires, we can
reduce the losses
by:
• building power
stations close to
people's homes
• reducing the
current - using
transformers
Less energy is lost if
the potential
difference is very
high, several
hundred thousand V
 National Grid
P=VI Resistance and high current cause heating
P=I2R
At 25,000V the current is 8,000A
At 400,000V the current is 500A
Thick wires are used to reduce resistance and heating
 Transformers
All types of power stations use step-up transformers to
substantially increase the voltage before it is distributed.

Step-up transformers →
 Regional Substations
The electricity carried around the ‘Super Grid’ arrives at a substation, where
step-down transformers are used to decrease the voltage, first to 132,000
volts and then to 33,000 volts.
 Factories
Large factories with huge electrical consumption take the
electricity at 33,000 volts.
Secondary Distribution Network

As the electricity approaches towns

and cities, it passes through
substations once again, and the
voltage is stepped down to 11,000
volts.

The electricity is now carried to

housing estates and smaller factories
around the secondary distribution
network.
Local Substations
Before being passed into houses, the
electricity goes through another local
step-down transformer, which further
decreases the voltage to
230 volts.

Always be safe - never go near a

substation!
 Safety and the National Grid
For safety reasons, the high voltage cables on electricity pylons are hung
from porcelain insulators.
Magnets
 Magnetism
• Describe the forces between magnets, and between magnets and magnetic
materials
• Give an account of induced magnetism
• Distinguish between magnetic and non-magnetic materials
• Describe methods of magnetisation, to include stroking with a magnet, use of
d.c. in a coil and hammering in a magnetic field
• Draw the pattern of magnetic field lines around a bar magnet
• Describe an experiment to identify the pattern of magnetic field lines,
including the direction
• Distinguish between the magnetic properties of soft iron and steel
• Distinguish between the design and use of permanent magnets and
electromagnets
• Explain that magnetic forces are due to interactions between magnetic fields
• Describe methods of demagnetisation, to include hammering, heating and
use of a.c. in a coil
Magnetism

Has 2 poles
Magnetic field strongest
near poles

What is the picture showing?

Like poles repel
 Hard and soft magnetic materials

Permanent magnets are Induced magnets are made

made of magnetically HARD of magnetically SOFT
materials such as steel. materials, such as iron.
They lose their
magnetisation easily and are
used in electromagnets.
Magnetism - Induced Magnetism

An induced magnet
becomes magnetic
when placed in a
magnetic field

Induced magnetism always causes a force of attraction

When the permanent magnet is removed the induced magnetism
goes to zero or is reduced
Magnetism - Induced Magnetism

iron nickel cobalt

Iron, steel (an alloy of iron), cobalt and nickel
can all be made into permanent magnets or an induced magnet
 Making Magnets - Induced Magnetism

Magnetism can be induced in

a magnetic material if it is
placed within a magnetic
field.

If the material is magnetically

hard it will retain its
magnetism once removed
from the field.

Certain rocks in the Earth’s

crust such as lodestone have
been magnetised in this way
by the Earth’s magnetic field.
A D.C. coil is inducing magnetism in this metal
Making Magnets - Induced Magnetism
Magnets can also be
made by stroking a
ferromagnetic material
with a permanent magnet
Making Magnets - Induced Magnetism

Align the piece of metal

North-South using a
compass, then
repeatedly strike the
South end of the metal
with a hammer
 Demagnetising

Demagnetisation can occur on heating, hammering,

dropping and by surrounding the magnet with an A.C. coil
 Magnetism - Field Strength

Magnetic fields are strongest at the poles

They are strongest closer to the magnet
They are strongest where the field line density is highest
They show the force an isolated North pole would experience
Magnetic fields between two bar magnets
 Magnetism - Field Strength

Using a compass we can plot field lines,

Place the compass in multiple positions
Connect the lines North to South
Magnetism - Field Strength

Iron Fillings can also be

used to show field lines
Place a piece of paper over
the magnet and sprinkle iron
fillings on it
 The Earth’s magnetic field
The earth’s magnetic field is
similar in shape to that around
a bar magnet.

It is thought to be caused by
electric currents flowing
through the molten outer core
of the Earth.

At the present the field pattern

is like that with a magnetic
SOUTH pole situated
somewhere below northern
Greenland
Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
Magnetic materials are either hard or ______.
soft Hard magnetic
materials such as ______
steel retain their magnetisation once
magnetised.
A magnetic _____
pole is a region where the magnetic force is
greatest. Magnetic poles always occur in ______.
pairs Like poles
_______,
repel unlike attract.
A magnetic ______
field is a region where magnetic force is exerted.
The ________ direction
of the magnetic field around a bar magnet is
from north to south.
WORD SELECTION:
pole repel steel pairs field direction soft
Electromagnets
 Electromagnets

In 1820 Hans Ørsted noticed

No current, Current,
that a wire carrying an electric
compass compass
current caused a compass points to north deflected
needle to deflect.
Electromagnets

The thumb
points in the
direction of the
conventional
current.
The fingers
point in the
direction of the
magnetic field
 Complete the diagrams below:

Add field Add current Add current Add field

arrows direction direction arrows

Electric current into the page

Electric current out of the page

 Electromagnets - Solenoids

RIGHT HAND GRIP RULE

Coils of wire like this are
called solenoids
A strong and uniform
magnetic field is found
inside the solenoid

The shape of the magnetic

field is similar to that around
a bar magnet

Magnetic field strength

increases:
1. with increasing current
2. with the number of coils
3. by adding an iron core

called an electromagnet, can be turned on or off and the power increased/decreased

Increasing the Strength of the Electromagnet
The strength of the electromagnet can be increased in four ways:

1. increasing the current

2. adding a soft iron core

3. increasing the number of

coils of wire

4. bringing the poles closer

together.
 The right-hand grip rule (for poles)

Grip the coil with the

RIGHT hand.
N S The fingers are placed
in the direction that the
electric current flows
around the coil.
The thumb points
towards the north pole
end of the coil.
 Complete the diagrams below:

1. Locate north 2. Locate south 3. Add current direction

S
N

N
4. Add coils N
Uses of Electromagnets

Scrap yard crane

Electromagnets - Relays
DANGER
The switch can cause
sparks or electrocution

A relay is used to turn on/off

high voltage appliances

When the electromagnet in

the low-voltage circuit is
turned on it attracts the iron
block in the high voltage
circuit, closing the contacts
and completing the circuit.
Electromagnets - Solenoids

QUESTION
How does this work?
 The electric bell
When the push switch is closed
current flows around the circuit push
turning on the electromagnet. spring
switch
The soft iron armature is pulled
towards the electromagnet and the electromagnet
hammer hits the gong.

This causes the contact switch to

open cutting off the electric current.

The spring now pulls the armature

back again closing the contact
switch. contact
switch
Current now flows again and the
hammer hits the gong again. soft iron
armature hammer

gong
Label the diagram of the electric bell below:

2
5
3

Contact7switch

1 8 4
 Circuit breaker
Current normally flows between
terminals A and B through the contact
2 and the electromagnet.

When the current in a circuit

increases, the strength of the
electromagnet will also increase. This
will pull the soft iron armature
1 towards the electromagnet.

As a result, spring 1 pulls apart the

A contact and disconnecting the circuit
immediately, and stopping current
flow.
B
Domesti
The reset button can be pushed to
bring the contact back to its original c circuit
position to reconnect the circuit breakers
Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
A wire carrying an electric ______
currentproduces a magnetic field.
This field increases in ________
strength if the current is increased.

A ________
solenoid is a coil of wire carrying an electric current. The
field produced increases in strength if the number of _____ turns in
the coil is increased or if _____
iron is placed inside the coil.

An ____________
electromagnet consists of a coil of a solenoid wrapped
around an iron core. Iron is a ______
soft magnetic material that
loses its magnetisation once the current in the coil is switched
off.
WORD SELECTION:
solenoid iron strength turns electromagnet current soft
Motors
 Motors

What would happen if we placed this wire in another

magnetic field?
 Motors

There is a magnetic field around

the current carrying wire

The white arrow shows the

direction of conventional current

The two magnetic fields interact,

causing a force on the wire

This is called the motor effect

 Motors

The size of the force on a wire at 90o to a magnetic field is found by:
Motors
Motors - Flemming's Left Hand Rule
Motors - Flemming's Left Hand Rule

Place your thumb, first finger and second finger at right angles
Point your first finger in the direction of the magnetic field N → S
Point your second finger in the direction of the current + → -
Motors - Flemming's Left Hand Rule

What direction does the

wire move in?

Up
Motors - Flemming's Left Hand Rule

C
Motors - Flemming's Left Hand Rule

What direction does the

wire move in?

None, it's parallel to the

magnetic field.
Motors - Flemming's Left Hand Rule

What direction does the

wire move in?

Out of the plane of the

screen, towards you.
 Insert the missing information
Q1. Force direction ? Q2 Current direction ?

N S S N

Q3 N and S poles ?
Q4 Force directions ?

N S N S

Note: means current out of the page

means current into the page

Motor effect - Fendt

 Motors

Current runs in opposite

directions in parallel
sections of a loop of wire

a clockwise
moment

This means two

opposite forces
are experienced
when placed in a
magnetic field
Motors

What happens
when the wire
reaches the
position below?

There is no moment
and the turning
ends.
If there is enough
momentum to
continue turning, the
moment becomes
anti-clockwise
Motors

What happens
when the wire
reaches the
position below?

There is no moment
and the turning
ends.
If there is enough
momentum to
continue turning, the
moment becomes
anti-clockwise
Motors - Split-ring commutator
 Motors - Split-ring commutator

Commutator breaks
current at 90o, so no
force, but momentum
Commutator restores
keeps the
connection
Switches the direction of the current wire
and moving
when the
wire rotates to 90o turning force
 rotation
axis

N S
contact brush

Brushes regain
in contact
lose contact
contact
with
with
with
thethe
splitsplit
the ringring
commutator.
commutator.
Current flows
no longer
through
flowsthe
through
motor coil.
coil
thebut
motor
in the
coil.
opposite
original
split-ring commutator direction.
Forces
The coilexert
will continue
a clockwise
to rotate
turning effect
Forces
clockwise
exert
dueaon
to
clockwise
the
its coil
+ momentum.
turning effect on the coil.

Electric motor - Fendt

GENERATORS
 Michael Faraday
In 1831, Faraday discovered that when a
magnet is pushed in and out of a coil, a
voltage is ‘induced’ in the coil.

He attached two wires to a copper disc.

By rotating the disc between the poles of a
horseshoe magnet, he obtained a
continuous direct current - this was known
as the ‘Faraday Disc’. It produced a small
voltage but a large direct current (DC).
Michael
Faraday
1791 - 1867
 Generators

Moving the wire up

Moving the wire down

Note: change in p.d.

The potential induced is called the induced potential.

No potential is induced when the wire stops moving,
when it is changing direction
 Generators

We can also induce current by moving the magnet

To induce current we must cut the magnetic field lines, so
horizontal movement does not generate electricity.
 Generators - Power

Larger currents and potential differences

are generated by:
1. A stronger magnet
2. Moving the wire/magnet more rapidly
3. Making a coil of wire with many turns
4. Using a coil with a larger area

This was proposed by Michael Faraday in his Law of

Electromagnetic Induction, which states that:
“the size of the induced voltage across the ends of a coil of wire
is directly proportional to the rate at which the magnetic lines of
flux are being cut”
 Generators

If a magnet is inserted into a coil of wire it induces

a current in the coil.
Note the direction of the current changes as the
magnet is pushed and pulled
 Generators

Changing the poles of the magnet changes the

direction of the current
 Generators - Work Done

Work is required to:

• Overcome repulsion
• pushing in a North pole generates a North pole in the coil
• Overcome attraction
• pulling out a North pole generates a South pole in the coil
The Alternator
(A.C.)
 The Alternator (A.C.)

The red wire always connects to ring A

The orange wire always connects to ring B
 The Alternator (A.C.)

The red wire always connects to ring A

The orange wire always connects to ring B
The Alternator (A.C.)

Max. P.D. when

coil is horizontal
(field cut fastest)
The Alternator (A.C.)

Zero P.D. when

coil is vertical
(field is not cut)
 The Alternator (A.C.)

In an alternator the 2 sides of the coil are connected

to 2 different rings
This produces:
• an alternating current
• an alternating p.d.
 The Alternator (A.C.)

Original
Stronger Magnetic Field
or
More turns on the coil
or
Area of the coil
→ Larger V

Faster rotation of the coil

→ Larger V GALVANOMETER
→ Higher Frequency
= VOLTMETER
Generator
 The Alternator - A Car’s Generator
A car has a generator called the alternator which produces
alternating current. Diodes in the circuitry convert the AC to
direct current (DC) which is suitable for the battery.

alternator battery
The Development of Mains Electricity Supply

During the 1880’s Tesla and

Edison were involved in what
became known as the ‘War of
Currents’.

Thomas Alva Edison Nikola Tesla

1856 - 1943
1847 - 1931
Edison developed a 100 volt direct current transmission system.
Tesla developed a 230 volt alternating current transmission
system, which in the end proved to be more efficient, and the one which was
eventually adopted worldwide.
 Question 1
V
The graph opposite
shows how the voltage
of a generator varies in
time. Using the same set
of axes show how the
voltage would vary if the
time
rotational speed of the
generator was doubled.

The new voltage will have TWICE the

amplitude AND frequency of the
original.
 Question 2
Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
The _________
generator effect occurs when a conductor is moved relative
to a ____________
magnetic field. This is also known as electromagnetic
___________.
induction

The greater the relative __________

movement of the conductor and
magnetic field the _______
greater is the voltage ________.
induced

If the conductor is part of a ________

complete circuit an electric current
will flow.
___________
alternating current is produced if the direction of movement is
continually _________.
reversed

WORD SELECTION:
magnetic complete alternating generator reversed
induction induced greater movement
The Dynamo
(D.C.)
 The Dynamo (D.C.)

Dynamos have split ring commutators

• The coil moves
• The commutator does not move
The Dynamo (D.C.)

Max. P.D. when

coil is horizontal
(field cut fastest)
The Dynamo (D.C.)

Zero P.D. when

coil is vertical
(field is not cut)
The Dynamo (D.C.)

Each side
passes through
the field twice in
one rotation
The Dynamo (D.C.)

A always moves
down, so the
direction of the p.d.
does not change
when the coil rotates
LOUDSPEAKERS
 Loudspeaker - Moving Coil

As the AC current
flows it causes a
magnetic field to
be produced in the
coil, the coil is
either attracted or
repelled by the
permanent
magnet.

Low/high frequency a.c. current → low/high frequency/pitch sound

Small/Large a.c. current → low/high volume (amplitude) sound
 Question
Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
The motor effect occurs when a _______
current carrying wire is placed
magnetic field.
inside a ________
The force exerted is __________
maximum when the wire is at 90° to the
magnetic field __________
direction but is zero if the wire is ________
parallel to
the field.
The force increases with _________
field or current strength, the
force __________
reverses in direction if either are reversed.

Applications include the electric motor and ___________.

loudspeaker

WORD SELECTION:
parallel reverses loudspeaker direction
current magnetic field maximum
Moving Coil
Microphones
Moving Coil Microphones

The diaphragm is a sheet of plastic

 Moving Coil Microphones

Soundwaves hit the diaphragm causing it to vibrate

The vibrations push the coil back and forth over the magnet
This induces a p.d. over the ends of the coil
 Moving Coil Microphones

Low/high frequency/pitch sound As the current produced

→ Low/high frequency a.c. current is small it is passed into
Low/high volume (amplitude) sound an amplifier and then
→ Small/larger a.c. current into a loudspeaker
Step-up and Step-
down
transformers
 Michael Faraday
In 1831, Michael Faraday wrapped two insulated
coils of wire around a large iron ring, attached to a
chair. When he passed a current through one coil, a
momentary current was induced in the other coil.
Faraday had developed the first transformer.

Michael Faraday
1791 - 1867
 Transformers

• 2 Completely separate coils

• No current can pass directly from one coil to the other
• The iron core is easily magnetized
 Transformers

The a.c. current induces a changing magnetic field in the iron core
An electrical current is induced in the secondary coil due to the
changing magnetic field in the iron core
Some energy is lost in the process
 Transformers

• The iron core increases the strength of the magnetic field

• Transformers only work with a.c. because a changing
magnetic field is required to induce a current in the
secondary coil
• d.c. has a constant magnetic field and does not work with
transformers
 Transformers

• Transformer 1 has an equal number of turns on coil 1 and 2

• the input voltage = the output voltage
• Transformer 2 has more turns on coil 2
• the output voltage is greater than the input voltage
• this is called a step-up transformer
 Transformers

• Transformer 1 is a step-down transformer

• twice as many turns on the primary coil so the voltage is halved
• Transformer 2 is a step-up transformer
• twice as many turns on the secondary coil so the voltage is
doubled
DOWN: To UP: To increase the
decrease the voltage output from a
voltage output from power station from
230V to 18V to 25 kV to 400 kV.
power and recharge
a laptop
Transformers
Transformers
Transformers
 Transformers

Assume power is conserved in transformers

in practice energy and power are lost in the transformation
Transformers
 Transformers - Efficiency
At 100% efficiency:
electrical energy in = electrical energy out
Pin = Pout

VP x IP = VS x IS

P in P out
 Transformers - Efficiency
Design:

 Coils are made from thick copper wire (low resistance)

 Iron core: this concentrates the field lines around the coils
 Iron core: laminated layers, so no current flows
 Iron core: circular induced currents (eddy currents) also reduced
 Complete:

PRIMARY SECONDARY
Voltage Turns Voltage Turns
230 V 1000 11.5 V 5050
230 V 500 46 46
V V 100
230 V 200200 920 V 800
9 V9 V 120 72 V 960
 Question
Why can a transformer not change the level of the
voltage output of a battery?
– A battery produces a steady (DC) voltage.
– This voltage would cause a constant direct current in the
primary coil of a transformer.
– This current would produce an unchanging magnetic field
in the iron core.
– This unchanging magnetic field would NOT cause
electromagnetic induction in the secondary coil.
– There would therefore be no secondary voltage.
Transformers in the National Grid

The high power required can be transmitted by using either a high current
or a high voltage. A high voltage (400,000V) is choosen as this reduces
power loss due to the heating effect of a high current. The power lost as
heat is:
P = I2R
Transformers in the National Grid

At power stations the output voltage of the generators is

stepped up by transformers from 25kV to 132kV.
The voltage may be further increased to up to 400 kV for
transmission over long distance pylon lines.
Transformers in the National Grid

The voltage is reduced in stages by step-down

transformers to different levels for different types of
consumer.
The lowest level is 230V for domestic use. The final step-
down transformer will be at sub station within a few
hundred metres of each group of houses.
 Question 1
Why is electrical energy transmitted over the National
Grid in the form of alternating current?
– To maximise efficiency high voltages must be used.
– Voltage therefore needs to be changed in level.
– Transformers are needed to change voltage levels.
– Transformers only work with alternating current.
 Question 2
Choose appropriate words to fill in the gaps below:
Transformers are used to change one ___________
alternating voltage level
to another. They do not work with ____________current.
direct

Step-up transformers _________

increase the voltage because their
___________
secondary coil has more turns than the primary.
Transformers are used in the __________
National Grid. The _______
25 kV
output of a power station is increased to up to _______.
400 kV A high
voltage reduces the ________
energy lost to heat due to the _________
resistance
of the power lines.
WORD SELECTION:
energy direct National secondary resistance
increase 400 kV alternating 25 kV
 01/25/2022
Kirchoff’s First Law
“The sum of the currents leaving a point is the
same as the sum of the currents entering that
point.”

Gustav Kirchoff
(1824-1887) For example:

6A

If the current … then the

through here is 4A... current here
will be 6A
…and the current
through here is 2A…
 01/25/2022
Voltage in a series circuit

If the voltage V
across the battery
is 6V…

…and these bulbs

are all identical…

…what will the V V

voltage across each
bulb be? 2V
 01/25/2022
Voltage in a series circuit

If the voltage V
across the battery
is 6V…

…what will the

voltage across two V
bulbs be?
4V
 01/25/2022
Voltage in a parallel circuit

If the voltage across the

batteries is 4V…

What is the
voltage here? 4V
V

And here?
4V
V
 01/25/2022
An example question:

6V
A3
3A
A1

V1

A2

V2 V3
 01/25/2022
More examples…

3A
6V

12V

3A

2A
What is the
4V resistance of
2V these bulbs?
1A
 01/25/2022
Kirchoff’s Second Law
“Around any closed loop, the sum of the e.m.f.s
is equal to the sum of the p.d.s.”

Gustav Kirchoff If the e.m.f

(1824-1887)
of the
batteries is
For example: 3V

The voltage across

each bulb will be 1V
 01/25/2022
Current-voltage graphs

I I

2. Bulb
V V
I

1. Resistor 3. Diode
V

Explain the shape of each graph

 01/25/2022
Carrier Density
Consider a copper atom: The diameter of a copper atom is about
0.25nm

This means that there will be 1 / 0.25nm = 4 x 109 copper atoms in

1 metre.

Theoretically ,in this cube

there must be (4 x 109)3 = 6.4 x
Consider a copper 1028 copper atoms.
cube of sides 1m:

Assuming each atom has one free electron there are 6.4 x 1028 free charges per cubic metre –
this is called the “charge carrier density” (n)
 01/25/2022
Some questions…
1) If, for copper, n = 6.4 x 1028 and each electron has a charge of 1.6 x 10-19C how much free
charge was in the cubic metre?

2) How much free charge would be in 1mm3 instead?

3) Calculate the carrier density for a cubic metre of another atom with diameter 0.3nm.
Assume each atom has one free electron again.
 01/25/2022
Drift Speed
Definition: Drift speed is the speed with which electrons will move
down a wire. How do we work it out?

Consider a wire of cross sectional area A and charge

carrier density n, where each carrier has the charge q and
they are moving with a drift speed of v.

1) Every second the volume of charge carriers that pass a point will be Av

2) Therefore the number of charge carriers that pass by every second is given by nAv

3) Therefore the charge that passes by every second will be nAvq

4) But charge per second IS current, so…

I = nAqv
 01/25/2022
Example questions
1) Calculate the current down a 1mm2 wire where the drift speed is 1mms-1 and the carrier
density is 6.4 x 1028m-3 (remember that the charge on an electron is 1.6 x 10 -19C)

2) Calculate the drift speed down a 2mm2 wire which has a current of 0.5A passing through it
and a carrier density of 6.4 x 1028m-3.
 01/25/2022
This seems slow…
The drift speeds in the previous questions seemed very slow – why is it that when you turn on a
light bulb it lights straight away then?

Consider the electrons in the wire:

Battery Bulb

When an electron is pushed in it knocks on the others so that

electrons “come out” at the other end. Simple really…
 01/25/2022
Resistivity
The resistance of a wire depends on 3 things: the length of the wire, the width of the wire and
what the wire is made of:

Resistance = resistivity x length R = ρL

area A

Calculate the following:

1) The resistance of a copper wire of length 2m, area 2mm 2 and resistivity 1.7x10-8 Ωm-1
2) The resistance of an iron wire of length 100m, area 5mm2 and resistivity 1x10-7 Ωm-1
3) A copper wire has a resistance of 5Ω. If the wire is 20m long and the wire is cylindrical
what is the radius of the wire?
 01/25/2022
Electron Drift
What happens inside a conducting material? The following model of a metal wire could help:

Electrons Ions

At normal temperatures, with no current flowing, electrons hurtle around continuously. They
collide with ions but because their movement is random there is no net energy transfer.
 01/25/2022
Electron Drift
Now apply a voltage:

Electrons Ions
Negative Positive

This time we can see that the electrons are accelerated from negative to positive. This
movement is superimposed on top of the random velocities and is responsible for electrical
effects.
 01/25/2022
Understanding Current
Recall the equation:
Increasing the temperature of a metal will increase the
___________ of the ions. This will increase the ________
of the metal and decrease the current because it lowers the
____ _____.

I = nAqv

In semiconductors the carrier density is small but _________ with

temperature, so the resistivity of a semiconductor decreases with
temperature (e.g. a ________).

Words – thermistor, resistivity, vibrations, drift speed, increases

 01/25/2022
Potential Dividers
VIN

R1

VOUT

R2

0V 0V

The Potential Divider equation:

(R2)
VOUT VIN x
(R1 + R2)
 01/25/2022
Some example questions
12V 50V
100  10 
VOUT VOUT

100  75 
0V 0V
0V 0V

3V 1.5V
75  50 
VOUT VOUT

25  45 
0V 0V
0V 0V
 01/25/2022
Practical applications
Vin

Here’s a potential divider that is

used to control light-activated VOUT
switches…

0V

When the light intensity on the LDR decreases its resistance will ________. This causes
VOUT to _______ so the processor and output will probably turn _____. The variable
resistor can be adjusted to change the ________ of the whole device.

Words – decrease, sensitivity, increase, off

 01/25/2022
Internal Resistance

+ -

V The voltage across the terminals of a

battery is called the “terminal p.d.”
 01/25/2022
Internal Resistance

+ -

V This voltage DECREASES when more

components are added…
 01/25/2022
Internal Resistance
All sources of EMF behave as though they have a
“built-in” resistor. This is called the “internal
resistance” and can be thought of as the
resistance to the flow of current inside the power
supply itself.

It’s useful to think of the internal

resistance as part of the external
circuit.

V
 01/25/2022
Measuring Internal Resistance
From Kirchoff’s 2nd law:

EMF = lost volts + p.d

Lost volts
E = Ir + V

V = E - Ir
EMF
V = (-r)I + E

Terminal p.d. V

I
 01/25/2022
Short Circuit Current
In this “short circuit” the only significant resistance is the
internal resistance, so…

Current = EMF

Internal resistance

Usually power supplies should have low internal

resistances. However, high voltage supplies can have
large resistances to avoid supplying too much current.
 01/25/2022
Numerical quiz
1) What is the resistance of a bulb with a voltage of 12V and a current of 2A through it?
2) This bulb transfers 100C of electrical energy. How long was it used for?
3) A power supply does 4,800J of work. If it transfers 20C of charge what is the EMF of the
supply?
4) What is the resistance of a thermistor when the p.d. across it is 20V and the current
through it is 2A?
5) Work out the total resistance of the following:

10Ω each
20Ω each
 01/25/2022
Numerical quiz
6) A thermistor has a resistance of 200 when 20V is applied across it. What is the current
through the thermistor?
7) The same thermistor is put in a warm water bath. The resistance drops to 120. What is
the current through it now?
8) A resistor takes a current of 2A. If the resistor has a resistance of 10Ω calculate the power
dissipated in the resistor.
9) A piece of copper wire has a length of 2m, an area of 1mm 2 and a resistivity of 1.7x10-8Ωm.
Calculate the resistance.
10) Calculate the charge carrier density in this wire if the drift speed is 1mms-1 and the current
through it is 2A.
 01/25/2022
Numerical quiz
11) How many electrons does it take to have a charge of 20C?
12) A bulb dissipates 800W of power. If its resistance is 200Ω calculate the current through it.
13) What is the voltage across this bulb?
14) An electric fire uses 1200C of charge over 2 minutes. What current did it draw?
15) Calculate the following output voltages:

12V 20V
50  4
VOUT VOUT

150  6
0V 0V
0V 0V
Safety
 Safety
 The human body contains approximately 70% water.
 Electricity flows more easily through water than through air.
 A very small electric current flowing through your body can block the
electrical signals between the brain and the muscles.

Current Effects
0.5 - 3 mA Tingling sensation
3 - 10 mA Pain, involuntary muscle contraction
10 - 40 mA Physical paralysis
30 - 75 mA Difficulty breathing
100 - 200 mA Irregular heartbeat
200 - 500 mA Heart attack or change of heartbeat
Over 1,500 mA Severe burning, heart attack, death

Current kills, a high voltage can cause a spark, which produces a current
 Safety in the Home

X
Never use electrical
appliances in the
bathroom!

Special precautions are taken when designing bathrooms:

 Switches are activated using long pieces of insulating cord.
 Special sockets are installed for shavers.
 Safety in the Home


X Never overload
circuits!

Fires can occur when overloaded wires become too hot.

 Although adaptors fit the sockets, you should never insert too many
plugs.
 Most wall sockets are designed for two plugs only.
 Safety in the Home

X
Never use an appliance
with a frayed or
damaged cable!

 Frayed or damaged cables can cause

fires or give electric shocks.
 Safety in the Home

X
Never touch electrical
plugs or sockets with
wet hands!

 When the body is wet, it is a good conductor of electricity, so you

could get an electric shock.
 Safety in the Home

X Never insert objects

into wall sockets!

 You could get an electric shock.

 Safety in the Home

X

Never place objects on
top of an
electric cable!

Objects can damage cables, causing power shortages or fires.

 If a metal object damages the insulation, the entire object could become
live!
 Safety in the Home

X
Never stick a knife in
a toaster!

 The knife can take current from the toaster and give you an electric shock.

 If there is something stuck inside the toaster, unplug it and then remove
the object.
 Safety in the Home

X
Never test a 9 volt battery
with your tongue!

 Each year in Britain up to three people die testing a 9 volt battery with their tongue!
 Local Substations

 Never go near a substation!

 Overhead Power Lines
Overhead power lines are very
dangerous.

You do not have to touch them to be

electrocuted, as the electricity can
jump through the air as a spark.

 DO NOT climb a pylon or touch

power lines.
 DO NOT climb trees which have
power lines passing close by them.

 DO NOT go fishing or fly kites near

power lines.

 DO NOT try to retrieve anything

stuck in power lines.