Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Basis 2. Dimension 3. Vector Spaces and Linear Systems 4. Combining Subspaces
Basis 2. Dimension 3. Vector Spaces and Linear Systems 4. Combining Subspaces
Basis 2. Dimension 3. Vector Spaces and Linear Systems 4. Combining Subspaces
1. Basis
2. Dimension
3. Vector Spaces and Linear Systems
4. Combining Subspaces
2.III.1. Basis
Definition 1.1: Basis
Notation:
A basis of a vector space V is an ordered set of linearly
independent (non-zero) vectors that spans V. β1 , , βn
2 1 0 2a b 0 a0
a b → →
4a b 0 b0
4 1 0
B spans 2:
1
x 2 1 2a b x a y x
y a 4 b 1 → → 2
4a b y b 2x y
Example 1.3:
1 2
B 1 , 4 is a basis for 2 that differs from B only in order.
1 0 0
0 1 0
En , , , e1 , e 2 , , e n
0 0 1
1 ik
k component of ei =
th
e i k i k for
0 ik
Example 1.6:
For the function space a cos b sin a, b R
a natural basis is cos , sin
Proof is straightforward.
Rule: Set of L.C.’s of a L.I. set is L.I. if each L.C. contains a different vector.
Example 1.7:
For the function space of cubic polynomials 3 ,
a natural basis is 1, x, x 2 , x 3
Other choices can be x 3 , 3 x 2 , 6 x, 6
1, 1 x, 1 x x 2 , 1 x x 2 x 3
Proof is again straightforward.
Example 1.8:
The trivial space { 0 } has only one basis, the empty one .
Note: By convention, 0 does not count as a basis vector.
( Any set of vectors containing 0 is linearly dependent. )
Example 1.9:
The space of all finite degree polynomials has a basis with infinitely many
elements 1, x, x2, … .
1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 ( Proof of L.I. is
y w y, w R ,
is Span left as exercise )
0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1
Example 1.11: Matrices a b
Find a basis for this subspace of 22 : S a b 2c 0
c 0
Solution:
b 2c b 1 1 2 0
S c b, c R b c 1 0 b, c R
0 0 0
1 1 2 0 ( Proof of L.I. is
∴ Basis is 0 0 , 1 0 left as exercise )
Theorem 1.12:
In any vector space, a subset is a basis if and only if each vector in the space can
be expressed as a linear combination of elements of the subset in a unique way.
Let v ci βi d i βi then c d β
i i i 0
i i i
∴ L.I. uniqueness
Definition 1.13: Representation wrt a Basis
n
Example 1.14: 3
Let B 1, 2 x, 2 x 2 , 2 x 3 D 1 x, 1 x, x x 2 , x x 3
Then 0 0
1/ 2 0
Rep B x x
2 Rep D x x
2
1/ 2 1
0 B 0 D
Exercises 2.III.1
1. Find a basis for each.
(a) The subspace { a2 x2 + a1 x + a0 | a2 2a1 = a0 } of 2 .
(b) The space of three-wide row vectors whose 1st and 2nd components
add to zero.
(c) This subspace of the 22 matrices
a b
0 c c 2b 0
2. A square matrix is symmetric if for all indices i and j, entry i, j equals entry j,
i.
x
y x y z 1
z
x1 x2 x1 x2 1 x r x r 1
y y y y r y r y
1 2 1 2
z rz
z z z z
1 2 1 2
Find a basis.
2.III.2. Dimension
To be proved:
All bases for a vector space have the same number of elements.
→ Dimension Number of vectors in basis.
→ Basis = Minimal spanning = L.I. set = Smallest set.
Definition 2.1
A vector space is finite-dimensional if it has a basis with only finitely many vectors.
Assume that = β1 , …, βn is a basis for a vector space, and that for the
vector v the relationship holds:
v c1β1 c jβ j cnβn where cj 0.
Then exchanging βj for v yields another basis for the space.
Proof: See Hefferon p.120.
Theorem 2.3:
In any finite-dimensional vector space, all of the bases
have the same number of elements.
Proof:
Let = β1 , …, βn be a basis of n elements.
Any other basis = δ1 , …, δm must have m n.
Let δ1 c1 β1 ck βk cn βn with ck 0.
By lemma 2.2, 1 = β1 , …, βk 1 ,δ1 ,βk + 1 , …, βn is a basis.
Next, replacing βj in 1 begets
2 = β1 , …, βk 1 ,δ1 ,βk + 1 , …, βj 1 ,δ2 ,βj + 1 , …, βn
Repeating the process n times results in a basis n = δ1 , …, δn that spans V.
If m > n, then we can write δn 1 c1 δ1 cn δn with at least one ck
0.
Which contradicts with the assumption that is L.I. Hence m = n.
Definition 2.4: Dimension
The dimension of a vector space is the number of vectors in any of its bases.
Example 2.5: n
Any basis for n has n vectors since the standard basis n has n vectors.
→ n is n-D.
Example 2.6: n
dim n = n+1.
since its natural basis, 1, x, x2, …, xn , has n+1 elements.
Example 2.7:
A trivial space is 0-D since its basis is empty.
Comments:
All results in this book are applicable to finite-D vectors spaces.
Most of them are also applicable to countably infinite-D vectors spaces.
For uncountably infinite-D vectors spaces, e.g., Hilbert spaces, convergence
most be taken into account.
Corollary 2.8:
No L.I. set can have a size greater than the dimension of the enclosing space.
0-D: {0}
Corollary 2.10:
Any L.I. set can be expanded to make a basis.
Corollary 2.11:
Any spanning set can be shrunk to a basis.
Corollary 2.12:
In an n-D space, a set of n vectors is L.I. iff it spans the space.
Remark 2.13:
The statement ‘any infinite-dimensional vector space has a basis’ is known to
be equivalent to a statement called the Axiom of Choice.
Example
3.2:
2 3
RowSpace A c1 2 3 c1 4 6 c1 , c2 R
A →
4 6
c 2 3 c R Span 2 3
Lemma 3.3:
Row-equivalent matrices have the same row space & hence the same row rank.
Proof:
This is just a re-statement of Lemma III.2.5, which states that, in an echelon
form matrix, no nonzero row is a linear combination of the other rows.
Example 3.5:
1 3 1 1 3 1 1 3 1
1 4 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
→ →
2 0 5 0 6 3 0 0 3
Basis for the column space can be found by applying the Gaussian reduction to
the transpose of the corresponding coefficient matrix.
2
1 0 4 1 0 0
3 0
1 2 0 4 1 0
1
AT 3 3 1 0 ~ B 0 1 4 T
B 2 1
3 0
7 8 2 4 0 0 0 3
0
3
4 4 0
1 0
0 1
→ Basis is 2 , 1
3 3
4
4
Example 3.9:
Get a basis S span x 2 x 4 , 2 x 2 3x 4 , x 2 3x 4
for
Solution:
Let T span 0 0 1 0 1 , 0 0 2 0 3 , 0 0 1 0 3
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 2 0 3 0 0 0 0 1
~
0 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 0 0
→ Basis is x2 x4 , x4
Lemma 3.10: Row operations do not change the column rank.
1 0
Basis for column space 0 , 1
(columns containing leading entries):
0 0
Theorem 3.11: The row rank and column rank of a matrix are equal.
Proof:
Lemmas 3.3 & 3.10 → row rank of matrix = row rank of its echelon form.
In reduced echelon form: Row rank = Number of leading entries
= Column rank.
Definition 3.12: Rank
The rank of a matrix is its row rank or column rank.
→ dim(RowSpace) = dim(ColumnSpace)
Theorem 3.13:
For linear systems with n unknowns and matrix of coefficients A,
the following statements are equivalent.
(1) rank of A is r
(2) space of solutions of the associated homogeneous system has dim n r
Proof: rank A = r reduced echelon form has r non-zero rows (L.I. eqs)
there are n r free variables (L.D.eqs)
Corollary 3.15:
Where the matrix A is nn, the following statements are equivalent.
(1) the rank of A is n
(2) A is nonsingular
(3) the rows of A form a linearly independent set
(4) the columns of A form a linearly independent set
(5) any linear system with matrix of coefficients A has one and only one
solution
Proof: Trivial (see Hefferon p.129)
Exercises 2.III.3.
1. Find a basis for the span of each set.
(a 1 3 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 2 1 M 1 2
)
1 3 1
(b 2 , 1 , 3 3
) R
1 1 3
(c 1 x ,1 x 2
, 3 2x x2 P 3
)
1 0 1 1 0 3 1 0 5
(d) 3 1 1 , 2 1 4 , 1 1 9 M 2 3
2. (a) Show that the following set of column vectors is a subspace of 3.
d1 3x 2 y 4 z d1
d
2 x z d 2 has solution(s) for x, y , and z
d 2 x 2 y 5z d 3
3
Example 4.2: 3
x x 0 0
v y 0 y 0 → 3 = x-axis + y-axis + z-axis
z 0 0 z
Example 4.3: A sum of subspaces can be less than the entire space.
Let L = { a + b x | a, b } and C = { c x3 | c } be subspaces of 4.
Then L + C = { a + b x + c x3 | a, b, c } 4.
Example 4.4: 3
A space can be described as a combination of subspaces in more than one way.
x x 0
v y y1 y2 y1 y2 y → 3 = xy-plane + yz-plane
z 0 z
Definition 4.7:
The concatenation of the sequences
B1 β1, 1 , , β1, n 1 … Bk β k , 1 , , β k , n k
Example 4.12:
a 0 0 b 0 0
M 2 2 0 d a, d R 0 0 b R c 0 c R
Corollary 4.13:
The dimension of a direct sum is the sum of the dimensions of its summands.
Lemma 4.15:
A vector space V is the direct sum of two of its subspaces W1 and W2 iff
V = W1+W2 and W1 W2 = { 0 }
Example 4.18:
In 3, the xy-plane and the yz-planes are not complements.
If there are more than two subspaces, then having a trivial
intersection is not enough to guarantee unique decomposition.
→ R 3 W1 W2 W3
W1 W2 W2 W3 W1 W3 W1 W2 W3 0