INTERCULTURAL MANAGEMENT

2021 - 2022
TOPICS

• 5 -How a company’s culture is developed and adapted when going internationally

• 6- International marketing & Intercultural management
• 7- How a company deals with cultural differences and uses Intercultural management tools and
dimensions
• 8- Impact of new technologies on intercultural acceptances and management
• 9- Nancy Adler (Cultural synergy ) / Alfred Louis Kroeber/ Clyde Kluckhohn/Confucius
 OUTLINE
• Definitions of culture
• Approaches of culture according to Morocco
> Onion, Barrell, Iceberg
• Levels of culture
• Cultural Diversity (high-popular-sub-counter culture)
• ETIC vs EMIC
• Aspects of culture (xenocentric, polycentric, ethnocentric, sociocentric, egocentric) ERPGXSE
• Elements of culture + Moroccan case
• Characteristics of culture
• Values and culture
• Impact of culture on management
• > Intercultural communication (Verbal communication - Non-verbal communication )
> Styles of communication (passive, assertive, agressive)
> Inductive vs Deductive reasoning
> How to deal with deductive/inductive communicators ?
> Intercultural management
• Meaning of dimension
• Dimensions of culture and cross cultural management
> Hofstede dimensions

> Trompenaars dimensions

> Hall’s dimensions
> D’iribane
> Shwartz
> Adler
> Kroeber and Kluckhohn
> Confucius
 OUTLINE

• Leadership strategies
• Leadership styles around the world
• Decision making
• Negotiations style
• Team management, Change management
• Values and Management
 ABLE TO

Understand behaviours of countries

Interact with people from other cultures

Choose the right type of leadership

Understand values in a culture and their importance in management

Know the difference between each dimension

Deal with other cultures

 OBJECTIVES

• Develop intellectual understanding and behavioral skills depending on people from different cultures in
work settings:
• Develop awareness of the pervasive and hidden influence of culture on work behavior in particular, but
also organizational design and organizational change.
• Help you effectively deal with the types of situations and issues one often is confronted with when
working internationally.
• To define communication
• To make a difference between the verbal and non verbal communication
• To know the different styles of communication
• To understand the verbal communication and non verbal communication across different cultures
 DEFINITIONS OF CULTURE

• A culture is a particular society or civilization, especially considered in relation to its beliefs, way of life, or art. – Collins
Dictionnary

“A collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the member of one human group from another” -G.H. HOFSTEDE 1991

“Culture is a rich complex of meanings, beliefs, practices, symbols, norms and values prevalent among people in a society” -
SHALOM SCHWARTZ 1979

“Culture is a dynamic process of solving human problems and dilemmas in areas of human relationships, time, and nature.” -FONS
TROMPENAARS 2005
• The United Nations agency UNESCO has
defined culture as the "set of distinctive
spiritual, material, intellectual, and emotional
features of society or a social group, and that it
encompasses, in addition to art and literature,
lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems,
traditions and beliefs.”
– UNESCO, Universal declaration on cultural
diversity.
(Retrived October 14-2007)
‘’Culture has many relationships to society which
include:
- Logical : Power over individuals belongs to certain
cultural categories, and beliefs such as in God.
- Functional : Certain rites and myths create and build
up social order by having more people create strong
beliefs. The greater the number of people who believe
strongly in these myths more will the social order be
strengthened.
- Historical : Culture had its origins in society, and
from those experiences came evolution into things such
as classification systems. ‘’ - David Émile Durkheim
David Émile Durkheim  (5 April 1858 – 15 November 1917) was
a French sociologist.
 “Culture is the “Without culture,
name for what and the relative
people are freedom it implies,
interested in, society, even when
perfect, is but a
their thoughts,
jungle.
their models, the This is why any
books they read authentic creation
and the speeches is a gift to the
they hear” future’’

Walter Lippmann  Albert Camus

(September 23, 1889 – December (7 November 1913 – 4 January
14, 1974) was an American 1960) was a French philosopher,
writer, reporter, and political author, and journalist. He won
commentator the Nobel Prize in Literature
 Motto : "God, Homeland, King"

Capital Rabat

Largest city Casablanca

Official languages •Arabic
•Berber
Spoken languages •Moroccan Arabic
•Berber
•Hassaniya Arabic

Foreign languages French

English
Spanish

Ethnic groups •Arab-Berber 99%

•Other 1%

Religion Sunni Islam

Demonym(s) Moroccan
Government Unitary parliamentary constitutional
monarchy

King Mohammed VI
Prime Minister Aziz Akhannouch
 MOROCCAN
C U LT U R E
Morocco has been called “home” by many different
people throughout the centuries. In addition to the
indigenous Amazigh (Berbers), the country has hosted a
variety of cultures coming from the East (Phoenicians
and Arabs), the South (Sub-Saharan Africans), and the
North (Romans and Spanish Andalusians – both Muslim
and Jewish) throughout history.

As a conservative and religious country, clothing is

something you have to be mindful of when visiting
Morocco. Especially in rural areas, you should always
attempt to cover body parts considered “private”. For
women, this can mean covering the arms (or at least the
shoulders) and the knees up. For men, it requires
covering up the shoulders and above the knee.

In cosmopolitan cities, such as Marrakech, Rabat and

Casablanca, the dress code is more relaxed and common
to see women wear short-sleeve tops and knee-length
skirts and men often wear sleeveless t-shirts.

Moroccans are a very welcoming and tolerant people

towards different cultures, ideas and ways of life. 
W E H AV E T H R E E
DIFFERENT
MODELS

Onion Model

Iceberg Model

Barrel Model
ONION APPROACH

The core stands for the values of a certain culture, which is not moving a lot. It
mostly remains the same. Even if something seems to be outdated, it still can
subconsciously play a role in the present. That includes individuals as well as
groups.

The first layer is rituals. Those rituals are changing slowly. (ex: marriage,
religion..)

The second layer are the heroes. Which means all people who play a role-model in
that society. Heroes can be real or fictives. They tend to represent many of the
culture’s values and beliefs.

The outer layers represent cultural artefacts or symbols such as flags, architecture
or traditional clothing.

All three layers can be trained and learned through practices except for the core:
the inner cultural values.
 SYMBOLS
Flag : The red background on the Moroccan flag
represents hardiness, bravery, strength and valour,
while the green represents love, joy, wisdom, peace
and hope. It also represents the color of Islam and the
pentagram the seal of Solomon. The 5 branches also
represents the pillars of Islam.

Zelig : It is a mosaic tilework. This form of Islamic art

is one of the main characteristics of Moroccan
architecture.

Fatma’s khamsa :  Believed to provide defense

against the evil eye.

Moroccan tea : One of the most popular symbols of

Morocco around the world.
 HEROES

- King Hassan II

- Gad Elmaleh (Comedian/Actor)

- Fatema Mernissi (Feminist writer and

sociologist)

- Tariq ibn Ziyad (commander who led the Muslim conquest

of Visigothic Hispania)
RITUALS
Wedding rituals

Couscous on fridays

Mint tea for guests

Special meals during Ramadan

VA L U E S
Moroccan values are:

Importance of family

Religion

Hospitality

The hshouma concept..

 ICEBERG APPROACH

The Iceberg Model is a metaphor of an actual iceberg : we can only

observe 10% of the actual iceberg, and the rest is hidden beneath
the surface of the water.

These characteristics can be divided into three levels, the first

being Surface, which includes all the easily observable
characteristics of a culture like Behaviors.

The second level in the Iceberg Model is hidden underneath these

surface characteristics. Interpretations take more time for an
outsider to understand.

Deep below the "water line" are a culture's Core values. These are
primarily learned ideas. In many cases, different cultural groups
share similar core values (such as "honesty", or "respect", or
"family"), but these are often interpreted differently in different
situations and incorporated in unique ways into our daily lives.
B E H AV I O U R S
What is observable in Morocco like
:

- Architecture

- Food

- Music

- Clothes
 INTERPRETATIONS

• Beliefs : Moroccans have a lot of beliefs such as the ‘’ein’’, the ‘hschuma’’ ect..

• Family : Family is the most important thing for the majority of moroccans.

• Gender role : Nowadays, women speak up for their rights, but the society is still ‘’masculine’’.

• Core values : Hospitality, respect of the elder..

 BARRELL APPROACH

This model
explains how and
why people see
culture the way
they do. It also
explains why
culture changes.
For example, the
economic base
changes because
of war, peace. The
superstructure
changes because
of new
technologies etc..)
 INFRASTRUCTURE

• The economy of Morocco is considered a relatively liberal economy governed by the law of supply and
demand. Since 1993, Morocco has followed a policy of privatization of certain economic sectors which
used to be in the hands of the government. Morocco has become a major player in African economic
affairs, and is the 5th largest African economy by GDP (PPP). The World Economic Forum placed
Morocco as the 1st most competitive economy in North Africa, in its African Competitiveness Report
2014-2015.

• The services sector accounts for just over half of GDP; industry — made up of mining, construction and
manufacturing — is an additional quarter. The sectors that recorded the highest growth are the tourism,
telecoms, and textile sectors. Morocco, however, still depends to an inordinate degree on agriculture.
 SOCIAL
STRUCTURE

There is still a gap between the rich

and the poor.

We can also observe gender

inequalities in Morocco.
 SUPERSTRUCTURE
• The hshouma concept is still a big deal in Morocco.

• The hospitality of moroccans is known worldwide.

• There is still a notion of respect between people, especially with elders.

LEVELS OF CULTURE
 INTERNATIONAL CULTURE
International culture is culture that extends beyond national borders.
It's not confined to a country, a people group, or even a continent!
With this definition in mind, it's not surprising to know that
international culture is sometimes also referred to as universal.

Marriage is an excellent example of international culture because it's

practiced by people groups all over the world. Whether they say 'I
do' in English, French, or Swahili, people all over the globe enter
into the union of marriage. Yes, the outfit the bride wears may differ
depending on her country, and the ceremony may look very different
depending on the couple's religion, but the basic premise remains the
same.
NATIONAL CULTURE

• National culture represents the beliefs and

practices shared by the citizens of the same

nation. It's what makes an American an

American and an Italian an Italian.

 SUBCULTURE
• Subculture is often defined as the beliefs and
attitudes that separate groups within the same
broad culture. As a layer of culture, subculture is
often made up of differences in religion,
socioeconomic status, and even race. As
Americans, we are very familiar with subcultures.
One needs to only spend a day in New York City to
experience the subcultures of places like Little
Italy, Greenwich Village, and Chinatown. Yes,
many of the people you see there will share the
national culture.
CULTURAL
DIVERSITY
(HIGH-POPULAR-SUB-COUNTER
C U LT U R E )
 H I G H C U LT U R E
Sociologists use the term high
culture to describe the pattern of
cultural experiences and attitudes
that exist in the highest class
segments of a society. People often
associate high culture with
intellectualism, political power, and
prestige. In America, high culture
also tends to be associated with
wealth. Events considered high
culture can be expensive and
formal—attending a ballet, seeing a
play, or listening to a live
symphony performance.
 POPULAR CULTURE

The term popular culture refers to the pattern of cultural

experiences and attitudes that exist in mainstream society.
Popular culture events might include a parade, a baseball
game, or the season finale of a television show. Rock and
pop music—“pop” is short for “popular”—are part of
popular culture. Popular culture is often expressed and
spread via commercial media such as radio, television,
movies, the music industry, publishers, and corporate-run
websites. Unlike high culture, popular culture is known and
accessible to most people. 
S U B C U LT U R E
A subculture is just what it sounds
like—a smaller cultural group
within a larger culture; people of a
subculture are part of the larger
culture but also share a specific
identity within a smaller group.

Each subculture has distinct norms

and customs that aren't a part of the
broader culture in which it is
enveloped. Think of the Amish, or
bikers, or hippies
 C O U N T E R C U LT U R E
Sociologists distinguish
subcultures from countercultures,
which are a type of subculture that
rejects some of the larger culture’s
norms and values. In contrast to
subcultures, which operate
relatively smoothly within the
larger society, countercultures
might actively defy larger society
by developing their own set of
rules and norms to live by,
sometimes even creating
communities that operate outside
of greater society.
CULTURE ETIC VS CULTURE EMIC
An etic view of a culture is the perspective of an outsider
looking in.
An emic view of culture is a perspective focus on the intrinsic
cultural distinctions that are meaningful to the members of a
given society, often considered to be an ‘insider’s’ perspective.

ETIC EMIC
Universal behaviors Culturally specific behavior
Outside perspective Inside perspective
Similarities between cultures Uniqueness of cultures

Global vision Local vision

Objective Subjective
ASPECTS OF
CULTURE
(XENOCENTRIC,ETHNOCENTRIC,
P O LY C E N T R I C , S O C I O C E N T R I C ,
EGOCENTRIC)
 XENOCENTRIC CULTURE
The term xenocentrism refers to the desire to engage in the
elements of another's culture rather than one's own. Styles,
ideas and products can all be items of preference by someone
with xenocentrist viewpoints.

• Some Examples of Xenocentrism

• Americans' belief that European's produce superior automotive
vehicles
• European Renaissance artists desire to emulate ancient Greek artwork
• Americans belief that French or Spanish wine is superior to what is
produced by American vineyards
• The belief that the way of dress by another culture is significantly
superior and that those within one's native country should adopt that
same dress
• The concept that a quality product can't be purchased in one's native
country
 ETHNOCENTRIC
C U LT U R E

Ethnocentrism is judging another culture based

upon the values and standards set in one's own

culture.

Ethnocentrism involves a belief or attitude that

one’s own culture is better than all others.

Almost everyone is a little bit ethnocentric. For

example, Americans tend to say that people

from England drive on the “wrong” side of the

road, rather than on the “other” side.

 POLYCENTRIC CULTURE

• The polycentric orientation operates under the premise that countries around the world have so
many differences in cultural and economic mores that striving to translate practices from one
country to another may be fruitless.

• Therefore, when a company assumes a polycentric orientation, it adapts its products, marketing
and support functions for each country it operates in. 
 EGOCENTRIC
C U LT U R E

In the EGOcentric society a person's identity is

INDEPENDENT from a group. (Self centered).

SOCIOCENTRIC
C U LT U R E
In the SOCIOcentric society, a person gets their
identity from the group.

The person acts differently around different

groups of people.
 CULTURE ELEMENTS
Religio Forms of
Government
Arts & n
Literature

Economi
c
Languag Systems
e

Customs Social
and Organizatio
Traditions n
 RELIGION IN MOROCCO
• With 93% of its population being considered religious,
Islam is the majority and constitutionally established state
religion in Morocco. The vast majority of Muslims in
Morocco are Sunni belonging to Maliki school
of jurisprudence. The King of Morocco claims his legitimacy
as a descendant of the Islamic prophet Muhammad.

• The second-largest religion in the country is Christianity, but

most Christians in Morocco are foreigners. Only a fraction of
the former number of Jews has remained in the country, many
having moved to Israel.

• The Moroccan constitution grants the freedom to worship and

congregation, while recognizing Islam as the state religion.
But the Moroccan penal code contains many laws that
contradict the constitution, including the 220, 222 articles of
the penal code of the country, which are usually used against
non-Muslim Moroccans.
 FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
The Kingdom of Morocco developed a constitutional monarchy based
on Islamic law and French and Spanish civil law systems soon after
receiving independence.

The three branches of the government are :

The executive branch : Includes the king, the prime minister, and a
council of ministers who are appointed by the king.

The legislative branch : Bicameral parliament with a Chamber of

Counselors and a Chamber of Representatives.

The judicial branch : A Supreme Court of Judges presided over

by the monarch.
 ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
• The economy of Morocco is considered a relatively liberal economy governed by the law of supply and
demand. Since 1993, Morocco has followed a policy of privatization of certain economic sectors which
used to be in the hands of the government. Morocco has become a major player in African economic
affairs, and is the 5th largest African economy by GDP (PPP). The World Economic Forum placed
Morocco as the 1st most competitive economy in North Africa, in its African Competitiveness Report
2014-2015.

• The services sector accounts for just over half of GDP; industry — made up of mining, construction and
manufacturing — is an additional quarter. The sectors that recorded the highest growth are the tourism,
telecoms, and textile sectors. Morocco, however, still depends to an inordinate degree on agriculture.
 SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
• The family is the center of every Moroccan's life. Children live with
their families until they get married or go away to school. It is
common for Moroccan women to live with their husband's family.
Women are expected to take care of the home. The elderly are highly
respected and are cared for by their families. Both men and women
play a strong role in decision-making. Women have more freedom in
the cities. More restrictions are placed on rural women.

• Every Moroccan is expected to marry. For many women, marriage

and childbearing are the ultimate goals in life. Most women want to
get married before their mid-twenties, and most men before their
thirties. Not all marriages are arranged by the parents, but parents
have a say in the choices made by their children.

• Moroccans shake hands during greetings and farewells. Close friends

of the same sex commonly hug and exchange kisses on the cheeks.
People of the opposite sex just shake hands. The most common
greeting among Moroccans is the phrase Al-salamu alaykum, which
means "May peace be upon you." The response is Wa alaykum al-
salam, or "May peace be upon you also."
 CUSTOMS AND
TRADITIONS

Traditional Moroccan Clothing : The

traditional Moroccan dress for both men and
women is the djellaba which is a long, loose,
hooded cloth with full sleeves. The hood has a
qob which protects the wearer from the sun or
cold depending on the weather. During special
occasions, men wear bernouse or a red cap,
commonly referred to as fez while the women
wear kaftans. 

The largest traditional event in Morocco is

considered to be the great Islamic holiday, the
Holy month of Ramadan. 

Mint tea

Eating couscous on fridays

 LANGUAGE

The majority of the people living in

Morocco are Berbers and Arabs.
The official languages are Berber
and Arabic.

French is also widely spoken

except in the northern region where
Spanish is predominant.

English is mainly spoken in major

tourist towns like Marrakech and
other towns in the north.
 ARTS & LITERATURE
• Moroccan art has been influenced by other cultures and nations.
However, the Berbers and the Arabs are credited for building an
incredible art scene in the country. Their architecture includes the
famous red Kasbahs castle which was inhabited by the ruling class.
The crafts feature carved doors with unique patterns and colorful
carpets. The modern Moroccan art has also been inspired by the
traditional Berber art and Islamic influence. One of the intriguing
Islamic tile mosaics is the Zellij which begun flourishing in the 14th
century. Most of the houses were decorated with Zellij as a statement
of affluence and class.

• Over the years, Moroccan literature has grown and evolved

tremendously. Books and poetry that form part of literature in
Morocco have amazed, shocked and fulfilled the citizens. They have
also shed light on the talents that had not yet been discovered or
explored. Some of the literature in Morocco is written in Arabic,
French, Berber and even in English. The diversity of Moroccan
literature is truly amazing, as are the writers who pen these literary
masterpieces.
 CULTURE CHARACTERISTICS
Learne Shared
Essential d
for life

Takes
Cannot time to
be develo
isolated p

Subject Transmitte
to d across
change generations
 C U LT U R E I S
LEARNED

It is not biologically passed from

older generations to the newer

ones. It is learned through

experience.
C U LT U R E I S
SHARED

Every culture is shared by a group

of people, usually inhabiting the

same part of the world.

C U LT U R E TA K E S
TIME TO DEVELOP

It is not a set of rules made by one

or more people and followed by

generations. With passing time, a

culture develops and even changes

in the process.
C U LT U R E I S
TRANSMITTED
ACROSS
G E N E R AT I O N S

Cultural values are transferred

across generations in the form of

symbols and stories that make them

easier to understand.
C U LT U R E I S
SUBJECT TO
CHANGE

With passing time, some beliefs

change, certain traditions or rituals

are eliminated, language and

mannerisms of people change, and

thus their culture. Migration and

globalization lead to a mixing of

cultures.
C U LT U R E I S
ESSENTIAL FOR
LIFE

Every culture is mostly influenced

by cultures of the surrounding

regions. 
VALUES :
I M P O RTA N T A N D LA S T I N G B E LI E F S O R I D E A L S S H A R ED B Y TH E
M EM B ER S O F A C U LT U R E A B O U T W H AT I S G O O D O R B A D A N D
D E S I R A B L E O R U N D E S I R A B L E . VA L U E S H AV E M A J O R I N F L U E N C E O N A
P E R S O N ' S B E H AV I O R A N D AT T I T U D E A N D S E RV E A S B R O A D
G U I D E L I N E S I N A L L S I T U AT I O N S . S O M E C O M M O N B U S I N E S S VA L U E S
A R E FA I R N E S S , I N N O VAT I O N A N D C O M M U N I T Y I N V O LV E M E N T.
 VALUES, CUSTOMS, AND CULTURE

While the terms 'culture,' 'values,' and 'customs' are often used interchangeably, each is
actually a distinct piece of the bigger picture.

A custom is a ritual or other tradition that is an outward sign of the group's cultural values.
The group's values aren't always obvious right away - they run deep! Cultural values can be
pieced together by observing the various customs that the people have passed down for
generations. 
Culture is defined as all of a group's guiding values and outward signs and symbols taken
together as one big whole.
TYPES OF VALUES
 TERMINAL VALUES

These are values that we think are most

important or most desirable.
These refer to desirable end-states of existence,
the goals a person would like to achieve during
his or her lifetime.
They include happiness, self-respect,
recognition, inner harmony, leading a prosperous
life, and professional excellence.
 INSTRUMENTAL VALUES

Instrumental values deal with views on acceptable modes of conductor means of

achieving the terminal values.
These include being honest, sincere, ethical, and being ambitious. These values are
more focused on personality traits and character.
 EXAMPLES OF VALUES

USA Morocco India South Korea

Independence. Generosity Family Harmony

Privacy.  Loyalty to family Diversity. Tenacity, Determination
Directness.  Hospitality Pride. Toughness
Equality. Indirectness Innovativeness. Filial piety (Respect of
Informality. Authority Adaptability. the elder)
Competition. Respect of the elder Harmony. Adaptability
Time and efficiency. Religion Modesty. Nationalism
Consumerism. Light-heartedness. Education
Work ethic
 VALUES AND MANAGEMENT
IMPORTANCE OF VALUES IN AN
ORGANIZATION
Contribute to the shared meaning in the
organization.
Binds people together as a community.
Provides people with a common
language.
Tell people how to behave to achieve the
organization’s vision.
Contribute to organization’s vitality and
performance.
THE BENEFITS OF VALUES IN
MANAGEMENT
 Provides good basis to management for
better business decisions.
Improves provided services to
partners/customers real needs.
Facilitate innovation to support
organization competitiveness .
Strong awareness of value culture, with
good understanding of businesss goal.
Enhance communication and the
efficiency of teamwork.
Commitment from partners/customers
and stakeholders.
IMPACT OF CULTURE ON MANAGEMENT
DEFINITION OF
C O M M U N I C AT I O N
Communication can be
defined very simply as
'sending and receiving
messages’

A second and more

complex view of
communication is that, in
addition to the
transmission of messages,
it involves their
interpretation and
meaning."
 INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Intercultural communication
refers to the communication
between people from two different
cultures. Intercultural
communication is a symbolic,
interpretive, transactional,
contextual process in which people
from different cultures create
shared meanings.
 VERBAL COMMUNICATION

The Verbal Communication is a
type of oral communication
wherein the message is
transmitted through the spoken
words. Here the sender gives
words to his feelings, thoughts,
ideas and opinions and expresses
them in the form of speeches,
discussions, presentations, and
conversations.
 Moroccan people American people French people

• Everyone talks at same

• They value small talks
time
• People feel
• Swear , insult , religion
uncomfortable with
are not acceptable in
conversations about sex,
American language. • People in France
religion , women rights.
requires to be
• There are language addressed by respect
• Negotiating may be
distinctions between by a stranger
difficult for the reason
older people, young ( Vouvoiement..)
that Moroccans always
people living in cities,
want to have the last
immigrants from other
word
• Speaking about family countries, or people
living in rural areas
is an important topic in
every discussion .
68
NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION

Non-verbal communication is communicating without words

 Moroccan people American people French people

• Eye contact demonstrates

warmth, openness, • Direct eye contact is
• They use facial honesty and
understood as a form of
respect. It is considered to be
expressions to approachability. extremely rude not to make
express their mood • It is best to nod or show and maintain eye contact.
and positions. some kind of sign that • French respondents are likely
you are listening to express emotions with
explicit and incidental facial
throughout a expressions by use eyebrows
conversation. and mouth

70
STYLES OF COMMUNICATION
INDUCTIVE VS
DEDUCTIVE
REASONING
Deductive reasoning is a basic form
of valid reasoning. Deductive
reasoning, or deduction, starts out with
a general statement, or hypothesis, and
examines the possibilities to reach a
specific, logical conclusion.

Inductive reasoning is the opposite of

deductive reasoning. Inductive
reasoning makes broad generalizations
from specific observations. Basically,
there is data, then conclusions are
drawn from the data. This is called
inductive logic.
 HOW TO DEAL WITH DEDUCTIVE/INDUCTIVE
COMMUNICATORS ?
Deductive communicators
preferring to hear the point
followed by the details. They
also provide information in that
order, the point followed by the
supporting information.
Inductive communicators prefer
to hear the details or the supporting
information prior to hearing the
point of the communication. That
order
also makes sense to them when
they are providing information, the
details
first followed by the point.
 INTERCULTURAL MANAGEMENT

More than just awareness, Intercultural management is an

understanding and respect of other cultures within an
international context. In practice, it means cultural
differences being acknowledged and managed openly,
rather than ignored. -Elle Ayres

Intercultural Management is important because

companies today work across countries and
cultures. Few organizations can work solely within
their own cultural context. With the internet, even
small startups can connect with customers or
suppliers thousands of miles away.
DIMENSIONS OF
CULTURE
C R O S S C U LT U R A L S T U D I E S
A dimension is a measurable extent of a particular kind,
such as length, breadth, depth, or height.
 CULTURE DIMENSIONS

• Geert Hofstede (1928) is a
Dutch organizational
psychologist who enjoys an
international reputation in the field of
intercultural studies. Geert Hofstede is
famous for his development of
the Hofstede cultural dimensions. This
organizational culture model can help
to identify cultural differences.

The Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory was created in

1980. Hofstede identified six categories :
POWER DISTANCE
 POWER DISTANCE

At a score of 70, Morocco is a hierarchical society.

This means that people accept a hierarchical order in which everybody has a place and which
needs no further justification. Hierarchy in an organization is seen as reflecting inherent
inequalities, centralization is popular, subordinates expect to be told what to do and the ideal boss
is a benevolent autocrat.
 TIPS

The Kingdom of Morocco is run by

constitutional monarchy, and it is also
a hierarchical society where people
from lower status perceive
inequalities as normal and acceptable.

More, according to Carte and Fox

(2010) in Arabic cultures “power in
companies is held by a few people at
the top” that give directives.

Rich people should help the poors.

People at the top need to be close to
others.
COLLECTIVISM
 COLLECTIVISM

Morocco, with a score of 46 is considered a collectivistic society.

This is manifest in a close long-term commitment to the member ‘group’, be that a family,
extended family, or extended relationships. Loyalty in a collectivist culture is paramount, and
over-rides most other societal rules and regulations. The society fosters strong relationships
where everyone takes responsibility for fellow members of their group.
 TIPS

In Morocco, family means a lot and

group relationships are very
important.

Collectivism can also be attributed

to the Islamic religion and
tradition.

But nowadays in big cities, this is

slowly changing.
UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE INDEX
 UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE INDEX

Morocco scores 68 on this dimension and thus has a very high preference for avoiding
uncertainty. Countries exhibiting high Uncertainty Avoidance maintain rigid codes of belief and
behaviour and are intolerant of unorthodox behaviour and ideas. In these cultures there is an
emotional need for rules (even if the rules never seem to work) time is money, people have an
inner urge to be busy and work hard, precision and punctuality are the norm, innovation may be
resisted, security is an important element in individual motivation.
TIPS
Morocco maintains rigid codes of
belief and behavior because of
religion and traditions.

The notion of Maktoub (Destiny)

The repetition of Morocco "Insha

Allah" which means God willing
MASCULINITY VS. FEMININITY
 MASCULINITY VS. FEMININITY

• A high score (Masculine) on this dimension indicates that the society will be driven by competition, achievement and
success, with success being defined by the winner/best in field – a value system that starts in school and continues
throughout organisational life.

• A low score (Feminine) on the dimension means that the dominant values in society are caring for others and quality of
life. A Feminine society is one where quality of life is the sign of success and standing out from the crowd is not
admirable. The fundamental issue here is what motivates people, wanting to be the best (Masculine) or liking what you
do (Feminine).

Morocco gets an intermediate score of 53 on this dimension and this in inconclusive.

TIPS
Morocco is a country that believes
in full of virility, but also has
female repressed unconscious.

That is why Morocco gets an

intermediate score of 53 on this
dimension and is inconclusive.
LONG-TERM ORIENTATION VS. SHORT-TERM
ORIENTATION
 LONG-TERM ORIENTATION VS. SHORT-TERM
ORIENTATION

• This dimension describes how every society has to maintain some links with its own past while
dealing with the challenges of the present and future, and societies prioritise these two existential
goals differently. Normative societies. which score low on this dimension, for example, prefer to
maintain time-honoured traditions and norms while viewing societal change with suspicion. Those
with a culture which scores high, on the other hand, take a more pragmatic approach: they
encourage thrift and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for the future.

• With the very low score of 14, Moroccan culture is clearly normative. People in such societies have
a strong concern with establishing the absolute Truth; they are normative in their thinking. They
exhibit great respect for traditions, a relatively small propensity to save for the future, and a focus
on achieving quick results.
INDULGENCE VS. RESTRAINT
 INDULGENCE VS. RESTRAINT

Morocco’s low score on this dimension (25) indicates that is has a culture of Restraint. Societies
with a low score in this dimension have a tendency to cynicism and pessimism. Also, in contrast
to Indulgent societies, Restrained societies do not put much emphasis on leisure time and control
the gratification of their desires. People with this orientation have the perception that their actions
are Restrained by social norms and feel that indulging themselves is somewhat wrong.
CROSS CULTURAL MANAGEMENT

Country Power Individualism Masculini Uncertainty Long term Indulgence

distance ty avoidance orientation

China High Low Moderate Moderate High Low

France High High Moderate High Low Moderate

Germany Low High High High High Low

UAE High Low Moderate High No score No score
available available
FONS TROMPENAARS

Fons Trompenaars is a Dutch author in the field of cross-

(born 1953)
cultural communication.
He defines culture as "the way a human group solve its
problems“.
Trompenaars experienced cultural differences firsthand
at home, where he grew up speaking both French and
Dutch, later at work with Shell in nine countries.
He is ranked in the Thinkers50 of the most influential
management thinkers alive.
 TROMPENAARS DIMENSIONS

Universalism vs. particularism

Individualism vs. collectivism

Achievement vs. ascription

Internal vs. external control

Neutral vs. emotional

Sequential vs. synchronic

UNIVERSALISM VS. PARTICULARISM

UNIVERSALISM PARTICULATISM

People place a high importance on laws, rules,

values, and obligations. Fit their actions to a particular situation

The rules are more important than the relationship The relationship is more important than the rules

What’s right is right regardless of circumstances or particular circumstances are more important than
who is involved. rules.

Treat everyone the same – no exceptions

Written contracts are less important, mutual trust is
Detail written legal contracts are very important more important
 INDIVIDUALISM VS. COLLECTIVISM
INDIVIDUALISM
People are expected to make their own decisions and
to only take care of their own needs.
Such societies assume that quality of life results from
personal freedom and individual development.
Decisions are often made on the spot, without
consultation.
More frequent use of « I »
COLLECTIVISM
These people believe that an individual’s quality of
life improves when they take care of each other. 
The community comes before the individual.
People are mainly oriented towards common goals
and objectives .
These people are integrated into groups which
provide help and protection in exchange for a strong
sense of loyalty.
 ACHIEVEMENT VS. ASCRIPTION

ACHIEVEMENT ASCRIPTION
These societies accord status to people on the basis These societies attribute status by birth ,gender, age,
of their performance. social standing, education…
Respect for superior in on hierarchy depends on his/
her knowledge and skills. Titles are used to reflect the influence of a person on
his/ her organization
Titles are used to reflect the the competence of a
person Status is attributed based on who or what a person is.

People are accorded status based on how well they

perform their functions
 INTERNAL VS. EXTERNAL CONTROL

INTERNAL EXTERNAL
Focus is on self, own group and own organization . Focus is on other, that is customer,
partener,colleague .
Often dominating attitude and tendency to
aggressiveness . Often flexible attitude, willing to compromise and
keep the peace.
These people are vocal about their opinions and
believe they can change their environment. Tend to avoid conflicts and remain silent to maintain
harmony with other people.
 NEUTRAL VS. EMOTIONAL

NEUTRAL EMOTIONAL
People are taught that it is incorrect to overtly show People freely express their emotions.
feeling.
Behaviour is warm, expressive.
Reason influences their actions far more than their
feelings. It's welcome and accepted to show emotion even
spontaneously.
Statements are monotonic and lack of emotional ton
. Statements are emotional and dramatic.
Do not reveal what they are thinking or feeling.
 SEQUENTIAL VS. SYNCHRONIC

SEQUENTIAL TIME SYNCHRONOUS TIME

Time commitments are taken seriously and staying Time commitments are desirable but are not absolute
on schedule is a must. and plans are easily changed .

Past or present-oriented: emphasize the history and  In a future-oriented culture, most human activities
tradition of the culture . are directed toward future prospects .

Doing a lot of things in the same time.

 CROSS CULTURAL STUDY
Anglo cluster
Relationship United States United Kingdom
Individualism x x
Communitarianism
Specific relationship x x
Diffuse relationship
Universalism x x
Particularism
Neutral relationship x
Emotional relationship x
Achievement x x
Ascription
104
 CROSS CULTURAL STUDY
Latin-European cluster
Relationship France Belgium Spain Italy
Individualism x
Communitarianism x x x
Specific relationship x x
Diffuse relationship x x
Universalism x x x
Particularism x
Neutral relationship x
Emotional relationship x x x
Achievement x
Ascription x x x
105
 CROSS CULTURAL STUDY
Germanic cluster
Relationship Austria Germany Switzerland Czechoslovakia
Individualism x
Communitarianism x x x
Specific relationship x x x
Diffuse relationship x
Universalism x x x x
Particularism
Neutral relationship x x
Emotional relationship x x
Achievement x x x
Ascription x
106
 HALL’S THEORY

Hall’s theory is based on 4 important factors : Context, Time,

Space and Information.

Edward Twitchell Hall, Jr. (May 16, 1914 – July 20, 2009)
was an American anthropologist and cross-cultural
researcher. He is remembered for developing the concept
of proxemics and exploring cultural and social cohesion,
and describing how people behave and react in different
types of culturally defined personal space. Hall was an
influential colleague of Marshall McLuhan and
Buckminster Fuller.
Information
 CONTEXT
In high-context cultures there are many contextual elements that should be taken into
account and help people to understand the rules. Many things are not said directly,
much is taken for granted.
Examples of high-context cultures are the cultures of France, Spain, Italy, Middle
East, Japan, Russia.

In low-context cultures ideas are expected to be outspoken very straightforward,

most of the things require explanation. Written instructions, contracts and documents
have more value in negotiations.
Examples of countries with low-context cultures are Germany, Switzerland, USA,
Scandinavia.
High context cultures
Value traditions.
Foster long-lasting relationships.
Rely on non-verbal signs such as tone of
voice, facial expressions, body language,
and so on. Tend to be non-confrontational
and more in-direct.
Are more collectivistic.
Rejection is to be interpreted from non-
explicit communication.
Require little explanation.
Are slow to change.
Morocco would be categorized as a HIGH-CONTEXT CULTURE
Low context cultures
Value individual needs.
Short-term relationships.
Require explicit communication since they lack additional
context.
Are more individualistic.
Communication is more direct and confrontational.
Require all the information in the message.
Can change quickly.
CROSS CULTURAL STUDY
 TIME
Monochronic time
M-Time, as he called it, means doing one thing at a time. It
assumes careful planning and scheduling and is a familiar
Western approach that appears in disciplines such as 'time
management'.
Monochronic people tend also to be low context.

Polychronic time
In Polychronic cultures, human interaction is valued over time
and material things, leading to a lesser concern for 'getting things
done' -- they do get things done, but more in their own time.
Aboriginal and Native Americans have typical polychronic
cultures, where 'talking stick' meetings can go on for as long as
somebody has something to say.
Polychronic people tend also to be high context.

Morocco would be categorized as a POLYCHRONIC

CULTURE
CROSS CULTURAL STUDY
 SPACE
Proxemics refers to the study of use of space (or lack of
space) in human interactions. It studies a subset of
nonverbal communication.

Proxemics can study communication of things like:

- Comfort/discomfort (moving closer often signals

greater comfort and intimacy, moving farther often
signals discomfort)

- Assertion of power (a person might move into

someone’s personal space as an assertion of power,
but a person could also be very physically distant
for the same reason; similarly, a person might stand
their ground in a situation where another person
might normally back off due to proximity.)
 SPACE

Hall was the first scientist, who started to categorize cultures by their attitude to personal space.

Some people need more space in all areas. People who encroach into that space are seen as a threat.

Personal space is an example of a mobile form of territory and people need less or greater distances between them and others. A
Japanese person who needs less space thus will stand closer to an American, inadvertently making the American uncomfortable.
Some people need bigger homes, bigger cars, bigger offices and so on. This may be driven by cultural factors, for example the space
in America needs to greater use of space, whilst Japanese need less space (partly as a result of limited useful space in Japan).

In cultures with low territoriality (area) people have less ownership of space and boundaries are less important to them. They are
ready to share territory with little thought. People with low territoriality tend to be high context.

Individuals from high territoriality cultures tend to show more concern for ownership. They seek to mark up the territory in their
possession. People high territoriality tend to be low context.
 CROSS CULTURAL STUDY

Morocco would be categorized as a LOW TERRITORIALITY

 INFORMATION

• Information Culture is the part of organizational culture where evaluation and attitudes towards
information depend on the situation in which the organization works.

• In an organization everyone has different attitudes, but the information profile must be explained,
so the importance of information should be realized by executives. The Information Culture is
also about formal information systems (technology), common knowledge, individual information
systems (attitudes), and information ethics.
• Information Culture does not include written or conscious behavior and what seemingly
happening in the organization. Information Culture is affected by the behaviors of internal factors
of organization more than external factors.
 SCHWARTZ THEORY OF BASIC
VALUES
Shalom Schwartz identifies seven cultural
values in three pairs, usually arranged in a
circle.

Shalom H. Schwartz is an Israeli social

psychologist, cross-cultural researcher
and creator of the Theory of Basic
Human Values (universal values as latent
motivations and needs).
EMBEDDEDNESS VS. AUTONOMY
Embeddedness
This is a focus on sustaining the social order, of avoiding change and retaining tradition. It is significant
where people are living or working closely with others and where conformance with group norms is
important. Embeddedness cultures value tradition, security, obedience.

Autonomy
The price and opposite of embeddedness is autonomy, where individuals have control over their choices as
opposed to having to consider others and shared rules. In practice, autonomy is about freedom as opposed to
the policed control of embeddedness culture.
Autonomy is divided into two types: affective and intellectual.

Affective Autonomy is the independent pursuit of pleasure, seeking enjoyment by any means without
censure. In many societies there are limits when affective autonomy leads to taking banned substances or
acting in ways that distresses or harms others.
Intellectual Autonomy is the independent pursuit of ideas and thought, whether it is theoretical, political or
whatever. In embeddedness cultures it is hard to police what people are thinking, though actions can be taken
to monitor intellectual publishing and discussions.
 MASTERY VS. HARMONY

Mastery
In a mastery culture, individuals seek success through personal action. This may benefit the person and/or
the groups to which they belong, sometimes at the expense of others. Mastery needs independence, courage,
ambition, drive and competence.

Harmony
In a harmony culture, rather than seek self-improvement, people are happy to accept their place in the world.
People here put greater emphasis on the group than on the individual.
 HIERARCHY VS. EGALITARIANISM

Hierarchy
In hierarchical cultures, there is a clear social order, with some people in superior positions while others are
in inferior positions. People here accept their position in the hierarchy and are expected to be modest and
have due self-control.

Egalitarianism
In the egalitarian culture, everyone is considered to be equal and everyone is expected to show concern for
everyone else.
THE THREE LOGICS OF PHILIPPE
D’IRIBANE
Philippe d’Iribarne (born 7 March 1937, Casablanca, French Morocco)
is a French author and director of research at CNRS. He works within a
research centre called LISE (Laboratoire interdisciplinaire en
sociologie économique or "interdisciplinary laboratorium on economic
sociology").

He graduated from École polytechnique of France and from Institut

d'études politiques de Paris.

d'Iribarne is one of the most notable critics of the limitations of the

works of Geert Hofstede, expressing concern that "a theory of culture
that considers culture to be ‘shared meaning’ does not allow for
representation of the forms of unity and continuity.
In “La logique de l’honneur”, Philippe d’Iribarne makes a comparison
of three firms: French, Dutch and American, which carry out the same
production with almost identical equipment in different places.
 THE LOGIC OF CONSENSUS (DUTSH)

• The boss is a peer, at the same level as everyone else, having no special status.
• When making a decision, the boss first consult his or her subordinates to gain their agreement.
• The same is done in return, constantly seeking consensus in a convivial way.
• Decisions are made through long discussions that need to engage each collaborator.
• A word of equal where the majority has to respect the minority opinions.
• Limitations : strong social pressure is brought to bear to achieve an agreement and to restrict more aggressive
displays of opinions.
• The process leaves the workers to withdraw.
• High levels of absenteeism and employees turnover.
 THE LOGIC OF CONTRACT (US)

• In the American company , a subordinate works for his or her immediate boss who set objectives , judge their work quality and
can order them to do things
• An American contract is very detailed and uses clauses that anticipate all of the problems that might arise during its execution
• The factory has many rules and procedures that have to be followed
• Several are quite detailed to reduce arbitrariness and ensure equity
• Even if contractual relations can temper deviations , a spirit of community also plays a significant role in maintaining equitable
work relations in the US
• Personal interest and morality are not opposed as they are in France
• The logic of contracts differs greatly from one where honor plays the central role
• Both types arise as products of specific social and historical experiences
 THE LOGIC OF HONOR (FRENCH)

• Each profession is guided by a set of rights and duties

• The French workers or executives tend to act to what they believe is fair in giver circumstances.
• Their assessment follow their group’s norms
• Bosses are accepted as superiors insofar as they show themselves deserving the position
• The existence of bosses who don’t deserve the title , the « wanna be bosses » or petits chefs
• the subordinate does not like his or her bosses to interfere with their job
• The French hate being treated like servants , a dreadful role
• Each employee will do what is needed according to his or her personal reading of the situation , wich making coordination
difficult
• The system is not conflict free , the workplace conflict might take the form of violent verbal exchanges
• This shows how attached they are to their ideas and their work
 NANCY ADLER
Nancy J. Adler FRSC (born 3 October 1948) is professor
of Organizational Behavior and Samuel Bronfman Chair in
Management at McGill University in Montreal, Quebec,
Canada

She has authored several texts, including peer-reviewed research

papers, book chapters and volumes, as well as entire books.
Some notable selections include:
Adler, Nancy J. (2012) “Leadership Insight: Going Beyond the
Dehydrated Language of Management” in Marshall Goldsmith,
Laurence S. Lyons and Sarah McArthur (eds.), Coaching for
Leadership 3e: Writings on Leadership from the World’s
Greatest Coaches, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass: pp. 148–161,
297.
Adler, Nancy J. (2012) “Leadership Artistry: Daring to Care,”
Organizational Aesthetics, vol. 1 (no. 1), 2012: pp. 5–10.
Adler, Nancy J. (2010) Leadership Insight. Milton Park, U.K.:
Routledge.
 C U LT U R A L
SYNERGY
Cultural synergy can be observed in the
creation new or reproduced cultural forms
that are distinct from the cultures from
which those forms are derived. In either
case, cultural synergy may be expected to
be more prevalent as globalization takes
place.

Definition of Synergy : The word comes

from ancient Greek: synergia means
working together. Andrew Campbell
and Michael Goold, two British
academics, define it as “links between
business units that result in additional
value creation”.
• High Synergy Organizations vs. Low Synergy
Organizations
High Synergy Organizations have employees that
cooperate for mutual advantage and usually tackle
their problems by following a very simple structure
that focuses on identifying the problem, culturally
interpreting it and finally, increasing the cultural
activity. Contrary to this, there are Low Synergy
Organizations that work with employees that are
ruggedly individualistic and insist on solving any
problem alone.
• Synergy and Cross-Cultural Communication
Competence
A more culturally diversified workforce creates a large variety of capabilities,
perspectives and attitudes and develops more skills in problem solving,
generating more creative solutions.
The present postmodern society is transitioning towards a high-synergy era
where the win-win and the all triumph concepts are adopted.
The key-points of this system are the mutual advantage and the strong
connection that people are building with each other.
Commonwealth has become the main focus of social institutions which
promote individual and group development.
In order to give in into this postmodern era, acceptance of the high-synergy
society which leads to way to better international business practices is
required.
“Synergy takes on increasing importance as multinational organizations, non-
profit agencies, and governmental activities become more global in scope,
more complex in practice, and more sophisticated in technology.” 
EXAMPLES OF
O R G A N I Z AT I O N S A N D
C O M PA N I E S T H AT
FOLLOW THE
C U LT U R A L S Y N E R G Y
CONCEPT
 ALFRED LOUIS KROEBER
Alfred Louis Kroeber (June 11, 1876 –
October 5, 1960) was an
American cultural anthropologist. He
received his PhD under Franz
Boas at Columbia University in 1901, the
first doctorate in anthropology awarded
by Columbia. He was also the first
professor appointed to the Department of
Anthropology at the University of
California, Berkeley.
Alfred Louis Kroeber did not propose a systematic theory or methodology, nor founded a "school", which makes it difficult to
describe his scientific contribution.

Some major themes, however, make unity.

Such an appearance does not mean that the physical or chemical processes are canceled, but that new organizations are formed
at this level without leading to complete isolation. Culture, "central area of ​anthropology" according to Kroeber, is one of
these levels, the highest.

Admittedly, Kroeber shares this central theory of the nature of culture with several other great founders of anthropology, but he
is the one who has tried to draw the most systematic consequences.
He defended himself afterwards to want to reify a sequence of phenomena. For him the value of this concept is largely
methodological.

Each culture is an original and complex organization which, during its development, tends to absorb new elements and order
them according to its own models. Cultures are systems because their variables are interdependent, but those systems are
largely conditioned by their own past. The most successful method for their study will be the historical method in the broad
sense, a total, holistic history of regions and periods, which takes into account archeology and prehistory.
 CLYDE KLUCKHOHN
Clyde Kluckhohn (January 11, 1905,  – July 28,
1960), was an
American anthropologist and social theorist, best
known for his long-term ethnographic work
among the Navajo and his contributions to the
development of theory of culture within American
anthropology.

He proposed a theory of culture based on value

orientations with Strodtbeck.

They suggested that values in any given society

are distributed in a way that creates a dominant
value system.
C O M M U N I C AT I O N
ACCORDING TO
CONFUCIUS
Language is the vehicle of culture and
ideas, serving to facilitate people’s mutual
uderstanding and coordinate people’s
inter-relations. Language is indispensable
to people’s day-to-day exchanges.

If language is not correct, then what is

said is not what is meant; if what is said is
not what is meant, then what must be
done remains undone; if this remains
undone, morals and art will deteriorate; if
justice goes astray, the people will stand
about in helpless confusion.

Hence there must be no arbitrariness in

what is said. This matters above
everything.
LEADERSHIP
S T R AT E G I E S
WHAT IS LEADERSHIP?

"Leadership is a process of influence between a leader and those

who are followers.” 
MANAGEMENT VS LEADERSHIP
The main difference between leaders and managers is that leaders have people
follow them while managers have people who work for them. A successful business
owner needs to be both a strong leader and manager to get their team on board to
follow them towards their vision of success.
LEADERSHIP STYLES
• Transformational leadership
Often considered among the most desirable employees, people who show transformational leadership typically inspire staff through effective
communication and by creating an environment of intellectual stimulation.
However, these individuals are often blue-sky thinkers and may require more detail-oriented managers to successfully implement their strategic
visions.

• Transactional leadership
Transactional leadership is focused on group organisation, establishing a clear chain of command and implementing a carrot-and-stick approach
to management activities.
Transformational Leadership creates an environment intellectual.
It is considered transactional because leaders offer an exchange; they reward good performances, while punishing bad practice.
While this can be an effective way of completing short-term tasks, employees are unlikely to reach their full creative potential in such conditions.

• Servant leadership
People who practice servant leadership prefer power-sharing models of authority, prioritising the needs of their team and encouraging collective
decision-making.
Research by Catalyst has claimed this style, described as altruistic leadership by the company, can improve diversity and boost morale.
However, detractors suggest servant leaders lack authority and suffer a conflict of interest by putting their employees ahead of business
objectives.
• Autocratic leadership
A more extreme version of transactional leadership, autocratic leaders have significant control over staff and rarely consider worker suggestions or share power.
“Ruling with an iron fist is rarely appreciated by staff, which can lead to high turnover and absenteeism.
There can also be a lack of creativity due to strategic direction coming from a single individual.
This leadership style is best suited to environments where jobs are fairly routine or require limited skills. It is also common in military organisations.

• Laissez-faire leadership
More commonly used to describe economic environments, laissez-faire literally means “let them do” in French. This is typically translated to “let it be”.
Laissez-faire leaders are characterised by their hands-off approach, allowing employees to get on with tasks as they see fit.
This can be effective in creative jobs or workplaces where employees are very experienced. However, it is important that leaders monitor performance and
effectively communicate expectations to prevent work standards slipping.

• Democratic leadership
Also known as participative leadership, this style – as the name suggests – means leaders often ask for input from team members before making a final decision.
“Workers usually report higher levels of job satisfaction in these environments and the company can benefit from better creativity.”
On the downside, the democratic process is normally slower and may not function well in workplaces where quick decision-making is crucial.
• Bureaucratic leadership
Bureaucratic leadership models are most often implemented in highly regulated or administrative environments, where adherence to the rules and a defined hierarchy are
important.
“These leaders ensure people follow the rules and carry out tasks by the book.”
Naturally, this works well in certain roles – such as health and safety – but can stifle innovation and creativity in more agile, fast-paced companies.

• Charismatic leadership
There is a certain amount of overlap between charismatic and transformational leadership. Both styles rely heavily on the positive charm and personality of the leader in question.
However, charismatic leadership is usually considered less favorable, largely because the success of projects and initiatives is closely linked to the presence of the leader.
While transformational leaders build confidence in a team that remains when they move on, the removal of a charismatic leader typically leaves a power vacuum.

• Situational leadership
Developed by management experts Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard in 1969, situational leadership is a theory that the best leaders utilize a range of different styles depending on
the environment.
Factors such as worker seniority, the business process being performed and the complexity of relevant tasks all play an important role in what leadership style to adopt for any
given situation.
For example, situational leaders may adopt a democratic leadership style when discussing commercial direction with senior executives, but switch to a bureaucratic strategy when
relaying new factory protocols to workers.
However, many people have a natural leadership style, which can make switching between roles challenging.
It can also be difficult to gauge what style is most suitable for certain circumstances, holding up decision-making processes.
LEADERSHIP STYLES AROUND THE WORLD
 DECISION MAKING
Stages in the Rational Decision Making Model

Gathering
Considering Deciding on Implementin
Defining the and
alternative the best g the
problem analyzing
solutions solution decision
relevant data
 CULTURAL VARIABLES AFFECTING DECISION-
MAKING

• Objective (basing decisions on rationality) versus subjective (basing decisions

on emotions) approach

• Risk tolerance

• Locus of control – internal (managers in control of events), or external

(managers have little control over events)

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CULTURAL VARIABLES IN THE DECISION-MAKING
PROCESS
Culture

Individualism/collectivism Utilitarianism/moral ideals

Locus of decision making

Risk tolerance Past/future orientation

Problem Data Consideration of Decision Implementation

Definition gathering alternative solutions

Objective/subjective Internal/external
perspective locus of control
WHAT IS NEGOTIATION ?

• Negotiation is a process where two parties with differences which they need :
• to resolve and try to reach agreement through exploring for options and
exchanging offers and agreements.

« Ray fells, author of Effective Negotiation »

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 THE TYPES OF NEGOTIATION
• Distributive negotiation
Distributive negotiation, also known as positional negotiating, negotiating zero-sum, competitive negotiation, or win-lose negotiation, is a type or
style of negotiation in which the parties compete for the distribution of a fixed amount of value.

Tips :
Don’t share information
Let them make the first offer
Tell them about competing offers

• Integrative negotiation
The integrative negotiation, also known as principled negotiation, cooperative bargaining or negotiation win-win, is a type or style of negotiation in
which the parties cooperate to achieve a satisfactory result for both.

Tips
Determine your list of priorities
Share information with each other
Find and offer solutions that produce the most gain for the other party as well as for yourself
 NEGOTIATION STYLES

• For North Americans, negotiations are businesslike; their factual appeals are based on
what they believe is objective information, and understood by the other side on a logical
basis.

• Arabs use affective appeals based on emotions and subjective feelings.

• Russians employ axiomatic appeals – that is, their appeals are based on the ideals
generally accepted in their society.
NEGOTIATIORS AROUND THE WORLD
 TEAM MANAGEMENT

Team management is the ability of an individual or an

organization to administer and coordinate a group of
individuals to perform a task. Team management involves
teamwork, communication, objective setting and
performance appraisals. Moreover, team management is
the capability to identify problems and resolve conflicts
within a team. There are various methods and leadership
styles a team manager can take to increase personnel
productivity and build an effective team.
 CHANGE
MANAGEMENT
Change management is the
discipline that guides how we
prepare, equip and support
individuals to successfully adopt
change in order to drive
organizational success and
outcomes.
THANK YOU