Mechanical Principles: Kinetics: Clinical Kinesiology

Brunnstrom’s Clinical Kinesiology Sixth Edition
CHAPTER 2
Mechanical Principles: Kinetics
Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Introduction
 Kinetics
 All about forces (as opposed to kinematics)
 What is force?
 Conceptual definition
 Properties of force
 Magnitude, direction, & point of application

Forces
 Four types of forces that affect body
motion:
 Gravity
 Muscles
 Externally applied resistances
 Friction
Gravity
 What is it?
 What affects it?
 What is the acceleration of gravity on earth?

Forces
 Forces act on a mass
 Mass = amount of matter in an object
 Mass versus weight

Newton’s Laws
 1st
 2nd
 3rd

Forces
 Newton’s first law: inertia
 A body at rest will stay at rest, and a body in
motion will stay in motion, until acted on by an
outside force.
 Inertia is reluctance of a body to change its

current state.
F  0

Forces
 Newton’s second law: acceleration
 Acceleration is proportionate to the magnitude
of the net forces acting on it and inversely
proportionate to the mass of the body.
F
a 
m

Forces
 Newton’s third law: action-reaction
 For every action force there is an equal and
opposite reaction force.
 Example: basketball player jumping

How we work with forces

 Forces can be represented graphically with
vectors
 The direction is indicated by the arrow
 The magnitude is represented by the length of the
line

Vector combination
 Vectors can be combined/added/multiplied
graphically
 Must be connected head to tail
 Resultant must be drawn from start to finish and
pointed correctly
 Resultant represents “net force”

Free body diagram

 Model of a system of interest (such as a body
or body part) showing all of the forces acting
on the body

Vector Resolution
 Start with a resultant and create component
vectors
 Use 2 component vectors that are perpendicular
to each other
 In anatomical examples one component will be
parallel to the bony lever and one will be
perpendicular

Anatomical vector resolution

 Perpendicular component (normal force) will
be the rotary component that will contribute
to torque
 Parallel component will either by stabilizing
(acting toward joint center) or dislocating
(acting away from joint center)

levers
 What is a lever?
 3 classes
 Characteristics
 Anatomical examples

Levers
 Resistance arm =  distance from axis to
line of action of resistance
 Force arm =  distance from axis to
“moving force”
 In the human body
 Axis = joint
 Body segments act as levers

Levers
 First-class lever
 Axis of rotation located between force and
resistance arm
 Similar in appearance to a seesaw
 Length of force and resistance arms vary

Levers
 Second-class lever
 Axis of rotation at end; force arm is larger than
resistance arm.
 Wheelbarrow exemplifies a second-class lever.
 Long force arm makes it possible to move large

resistances with little force.
Levers
 Third-class lever
 Axis of rotation at end; force arm smaller than
resistance arm
 Most common in human body
 Designed to produce speed of distal segment
 Able to move small weights a long distance
 Occurs frequently in an open kinematic chain
(OKC)

Force Applications to the Body

 Levers and muscle activity
 Majority of lever systems in body are third
class.
 Muscles must exert large forces to overcome
external resistance due to lever arm lengths.
 However, small changes in muscle length create
large angular displacements.
 Design suggests body’s levers are designed for
speed rather than for strength.
Levers
 Mechanical advantage
 Ratio between the length of the force arm and
the length of the resistance arm
Force Arm Length

 MA 
Resistance Arm Length
 MA may be >1, <1, or equal to 1

torque
 Conceptual definition
 Mathematical definition
 Right hand rule
 Finding moment arm

Torque (τ)
 Product of a force times the perpendicular
distance from its line of action to the axis
of motion
τ=F·d
 d =  distance from location of force on body

segment to the joint (axis)

Clinical Application of Concepts

 Pressure
 Defined as force per unit of area.
 Optimal applications of pressure facilitate

growth and hypertrophy.
 Excessive force may cause tissue injury.

Clinical Application of Concepts

 Pressure may be reduced by:
 Decreasing the magnitude of the force
 Increasing the area of application
 Decreasing the time of application

Equilibrium
 Forces sum to zero
 Torques sum to zero
 What happens when these things do not sum
to zero?


 Weight and center of mass (COM)
 COM
 Point about which an object is balanced
 Origin of gravity’s force vector
 Symmetrical objects—center of object
 Asymmetrical objects—challenging to identify
 In adults, located anterior to S2


 Base of support (BOS)
 Line of gravity is the vertical line downward
from the center of mass.
 The body is stable when the line of gravity

passes through the center of BOS.
 Larger the BOS, more stable an object is.


 Stable, unstable, and neutral equilibrium
 Degree of stability depends on:
 Height of center of gravity above base of support
 Size of base of support
 Location of “gravity line” within base of support
 Weight of the body


 Stable, unstable, and neutral equilibrium
 Stable equilibrium—body returns to former position after light
perturbation
 Unstable equilibrium—body seeks a new position after light

perturbation
 Neutral equilibrium—center of gravity displaced but remains

at same level
 Rolling ball

Balance
 In biomechanics, balance is the control of
equilibrium but it is not synonymous with
equilibrium

Fluid Forces
 Archimedes’ Principle
 Buoyant force is equal to the weight of the
displaced fluid

Bernoulli’s Principle
 Explains lift
 Inverse relationship between flow velocity ad
pressure
 Magnus effect is special case

Projectile motion
 Trajectory is parabola
 Factors that determine trajectory
 Vertical and horizontal components of velocity
 Effects of drag friction
 Sports applications
 Various goals

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Brunnstrom’s Clinical Kinesiology Sixth Edition

Mechanical Principles: Kinetics

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

 Externally applied resistances

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

 Mass = amount of matter in an object

 Mass versus weight

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

 Inertia is reluctance of a body to change its

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

 Example: basketball player jumping

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

How we work with forces

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Free body diagram

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Anatomical vector resolution

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

 Similar in appearance to a seesaw

 Length of force and resistance arms vary

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

 Wheelbarrow exemplifies a second-class lever.

 Long force arm makes it possible to move large

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Force Applications to the Body

Force Arm Length

 MA may be >1, <1, or equal to 1

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

 d =  distance from location of force on body

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Clinical Application of Concepts

 Optimal applications of pressure facilitate

 Excessive force may cause tissue injury.

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Clinical Application of Concepts

 Increasing the area of application

 Decreasing the time of application

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Force Applications to the Body

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Force Applications to the Body

 The body is stable when the line of gravity

 Larger the BOS, more stable an object is.

Force Applications to the Body

 Size of base of support

 Location of “gravity line” within base of support

 Weight of the body

Force Applications to the Body

 Unstable equilibrium—body seeks a new position after light

 Neutral equilibrium—center of gravity displaced but remains

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company

Copyright © 2012 F.A. Davis Company