Chapter Five:

Analyses and Interpretation of

Data

01/28/2022 1
 Cont…..d
 The analysis of data requires a number of closely related
operations such as:
a) Editing
b) Coding, Entering in to Excel or SPSS or STATA
c) Presentation of Data via Tabulation and the like
d) Descriptive analysis
e) Drawing statistical inferences.
 Demographic Profile of Respondents
 Research Objective (Major Issues of Analysis)
 Present your data using tables, graphs, texts… then
interpret and analyze – show the implication, support with
additional data from interview… and evidences in the
literature
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 Cont…..d
Example …taken from my unpublished manuscript

The total cash saving of insured households, on average, is found to be

Birr 1004.32 which is higher by Birr 233.02 than the average savings of the
uninsured herders at less than 10% level of significance. Unlike to our
expectation and Cai, (2013), this result shows presence of significant and
positive correlation between IBLI and saving. It was perceived that households
with higher cash saving are less risk averters, but the correlation is found to be
positive. This result infers that many households still use precautionary cash
saving as risk copping strategy because the IBLI does not provide coverage
against idiosyncratic risk but only against systematic shocks.
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3
Data Processing and Analysis
Data Processing
 It implies editing, coding, classification, and
tabulation of collected data.
A. Editing:
 Is a process of examining the collected data to detect
errors and omissions and to correct these when
possible.
 Making data ready for coding and transfer to data
storage.
 Done to assure that the data are accurate, consistent
with other facts gathered and uniformly entered,
Data Processing
Field editing: Consist of reviewing of the
reporting forms by the investigator for completing
what has been written in abbreviation and/ or in
illegible form at a time of recording the
respondents’ response
This sort of editing should be done as soon as
possible after the interview or observation.
Central editing: It will take place at the research
office. Its objective is to correct errors such as
entry in the wrong place.
Data Processing…
B. Coding
 Refers to the process of assigning numbers to each
answers so that responses can be put into a limited
number of categories.
 Coding is used when the researcher uses computer to
analyze the data otherwise it can be avoided.
Eg.
1. Closed end question 1 [ ] Yes 2 [ ] No
2. Likert scale
Data Processing…
C. Classification
 Data classification implies the processes of
arranging data in groups or classes on the basis
of common characteristics.
 Data having common characteristics placed in
one class and in this way the entire data get
divided into a number of groups or classes.
Data Processing…
D. Tabulation:
 Tabulation is the process of summarizing raw
data and displaying in table form for further
analysis.
Generally accepted principles of tabulation
 Every table should have a clear, concise and
adequate title so as to make the table intelligible
without reference to the text and this title should
always be placed just above the body of the
table.
 Every table should be given a distinct number
to facilitate easy reference.
Data Processing…
 The column headings (captions) and the row headings
(stubs) of the table should be clear and brief.
 The units of measurement under each heading or sub-
heading must always be indicated.
 Source or sources from where the data in the table have
been obtained must be indicated just below the table.
 Those columns whose data are to be compared should be
kept side by side. Similarly, percentages and/or averages
must also be kept close to the data.
 Data analysis

 Involve estimating the values of unknown parameters of

the population and testing hypothesis for drawing
inferences.
 Refers to computation of certain measures for searching
relationship that exist with data.
Analysis can be categorized as:
i). Descriptive Analysis, and
(ii). Inferential Analysis
 Data analysis…
i). Descriptive Analysis
Refers to transformation of raw data into a
form that will make them easy to understand
and interpret.
Descriptive statistics are a set of techniques that
organize, summarize and provide a general
overview of data.
 Data analysis…

The most common forms of describing the

processed data are:
Tabulation

Percentage

Measure of central tendency

Measure of dispersion
 Data analysis…

Measurement of central tendency

 Measure of central tendency is a sort of average or
typical value of the items in the series.
 Its function is to summarize the series in terms of
this average value.
The most common measures of central tendency are–
(i) Arithmetic mean or mean

(ii) Median and

(iii) Mode
 Data analysis…
Mean – the sum of all measurements divided by the
number of observations in the data set
Median: is the number present in the middle when
the numbers in a set of data are arranged in
ascending or descending order.
Mode: is the value that occurs most frequently in a
set of data.
◦ This is the only central tendency measure that can
be used with nominal data, which have purely
qualitative category assignments.
 Example: Measures of Central Tendency
(Arithmetic Mean)
 The arithmetic mean is the average of all the values
under consideration

Branch Revenue

1 50,000,000
2 150,000,000
3 40,000,000
4 60,000,000
Total = 300,000,000

Arithmetic Mean = 300,000,000 / 4 = 75,000,000

 Example: Measures of Central Tendency
(Median)
 The Median is the midpoint of the distribution of values
under consideration

Salesperson Number of Sales

Calls
1 4
2 3
Median = 3
3 2
4 5
5 3 1 2 3 3 3 4 5 5
6 3
7 1
8 5
 Example: Measures of Central Tendency
(Mode)
 The Mode is the value that occurs most frequently in
the distribution of values under consideration

Salesperson Number of Sales

Calls
1 4
2 3
Mode = 3
3 2
4 5
5 3
6 3
7 1
8 5
Data analysis…
Measures of asymmetry (skewness)-it measures
the shape of distribution
The shape of the distribution is said to be
symmetric if the observations are balanced or
evenly distributed, about the center.
Symmetric Distribution

10
9
8
7
6
Frequency

5
4
3
2
1
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 Data analysis…
 The shape of the distribution is said to be skewed if the
observations are not symmetrically distributed around
the center.
A positively skewed
Positively Skewed Distribution

12

distribution (skewed to the 10

right) has a tail that extends

Frequency
6

to the right in the direction

4

of positive values.
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

A negatively skewed
Negatively Skewed Distribution

12

distribution (skewed to the 10

left) has a tail that extends to

Frequency

the left in the direction of

4

negative values. 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
 Data analysis…
Measurement of Dispersion
 Dispersion measure how the value of an item is
scattered around the true value of the average.
 It is a measurement of how far is the value of the
variable from the average value.
Important measures of dispersion are:
 Range: difference between the max & min value of
an observed variable.
 Mean deviation: It is the average dispersion of an
observation around the mean value.
 Standard deviation: is defined as the square-root
of the average of squares of deviations.
When the distribution of item in a series
happens to be perfectly symmetrical
Data Presentation
• Data in raw form are usually not easy to use for decision
making
• Some type of organization is needed
• Table
• Graph
• Data presentation: The process of transforming a mass of raw
data into tables and charts-as a part of making sense of the data.
• Refers to the preparation of data in a manner that could be used
by general audience
• Tables:
◦ They can be used with just about all types of numerical data.
• Graphical
• The type of graph to use depends on the variable being
summarized
 Data presentation: The Frequency
Distribution Table
Summarize data by category

Example: Hospital Patients by Unit

Hospital Unit Number of Patients
Cardiac Care 1,052
Emergency 2,245
Intensive Care 340
Maternity 552
Surgery 4,630

(Variables are
categorical)
 Data presentation-Cont’d

Person Mode of Person Mode of Person Mode of

travel travel travel
1 car 11 car 1 car
2 car 12 bus 2 car
3 bus 13 walk 3 bus
4 car 14 car 4 car
5 walk 15 train 5 walk
6 cycle 16 bus 6 cycle
7 car 17 car 7 car
8 cycle 18 cycle 8 cycle
9 bus 19 car 9 bus
10 train 20 car 10 train

•How would you classify this data?

 Data presentation-Cont’d

• This data is categorical (nominal ) since mode of travel does not

have a numerical value. This information would be better
displayed as a frequency table:
• Table: frequency Mode of travel
Mode of travel Frequency Relative frequency (%)
Car 9 45
Bus 4 20
Cycle 3 15
Walk 2 10
Train 2 10
Total 20 100

• Frequency: the number of times each category appeared

• Ordering by descending size of frequency makes comparison clearer
 Data presentation-Cont’d

 Diagrammatic representation of data (bar charts, pie

charts, histogram, line graphs, frequency polygon)
 Bar charts:
A bar chart is a graph that shows the frequency
distribution of a variable.
 They can be used with nominal and with discrete data
 Bars should be of equal width, with the height of the bars
representing the frequency (height of the bar is
proportional to frequency) or the amount for each separate
category.
 For each category a vertical bar is drawn
 There is a gap between each bar.
 Data presentation-Cont’d
Types of bar charts: simple bar chart, multiple bar
chart, component bar chart
 A simple bar chart: shows the total of each
category
 A multiple bar chart is used when you are interested
in changes in the components but the totals are of
no interest
 A component bar chart: this helps to compare totals
and seeing how the totals are made up a component
bar chart.
 Number of
patients per year

1000
2000
3000
4000
5000

0
Cardiac Care

Emergency

Intensive
Care

Maternity
Hospital Patients by Unit
Simple Bar Chart Example

Surgery
A multiple bar Chart Example
 Sales by quarter for three sales territories:

60

50

40
East
30 West
North
20

10

0
1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr
A Component bar Chart Example
• Sales by quarter for three sales territories:
Pie chart:

 Presents data as segments of the whole pie.

 Each category is represented by a segment of a
circle.
 The segments are presented in terms of percentages
 The size of each segment reflects the frequency of
that category and can be represented as an angle.
 Hospital Number % of
Unit of Patients Total Hospital Patients by Unit

Cardiac Care 1,052 11.93 Cardiac Care

Emergency 2,245 25.46 12%
Intensive Care 340 3.86
Maternity 552 6.26
Surgery 4,630 52.50
Emergency
Surgery 25%
53%

Intensive Care
(Percentages are 4%
Maternity
rounded to the
nearest percent) 6%
 Tests of significance
 There are two general classes of significance tests:
Parametric hypothesis testing Non-parametric hypothesis
testing
• When the data are interval-or • when data are either ordinal
ratio-scaled (gross national or nominal
product, industry sales
volume) and sample size is •Examples: Chi-square,
large Kolmogorov-Smirnov test
•It assumes that the data in the
study are drawn from
population with normal (bell-
shaped) distributions and /or
normal sampling distribution

•Examples z-test, t-test

Inferential Analysis

Inferential analysis involves using quantitative

data to draw conclusion or inferences about a

complete population.
 Seek to determine the relationship between
variables and test statistical significance.
 Inferential Analysis…

Two questions should be answered to determine

the relationship between variables:
(i) Does there association between the two (or
more) variables? If yes, of what degree?
 This question is answered by the use of
correlation technique.
◦ The most common estimator of the correlation is the
Pearson’s correlation coefficient
◦ Charles Spearman’s coefficient of correlation
Correlation

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Correlation

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Measures of relationship:
Need to determine whether there is a
relationship between variables
 Correlation

• Magnitude
• Direction
Inferential Analysis…
(ii) Is there any cause and effect relationship
between the two variables? If yes, of what degree
and in which direction?
 This will be answered by technique of
regression.
There are different techniques of regression.
◦ In case of bivariate population cause and effect
relationship can be studied through simple
regression.
◦ In case of multivariate population, causal
relationship can be studied through multiple
regression analysis.
Linear/Multiple regression
Regression is used to predict the value of dependent
variable based on the value of independent variable.
Linear regression tries to find the best line to fit the
data. It deals with only one DV and IV.
A multiple regression equation the extension of linear
regression. It deals with more than two independent
variables.
B0 and Bi are regression coefficient

Y   0  1 x1   2 x2  ...   n xn  e

01/28/2022 41
Linear/Multiple regression…

n(  XY )  ( X )(  Y )
b
n(  X 2 )  (  X ) 2
Y X
a b
n n

01/28/2022 42
 Multivariate Assumptions
linear relationship -IV and the DV- can best be tested with
scatter plot
Multivariate Normality– residuals should normally distributed
No Multicollinearity—Independent Variables should not
highly correlated with each other-can be tested using Variance
Inflation Factor (VIF), Correlation matrix, Tolerance, and
Condition Index
Homoscedasticity–variance of error terms should be similar
across the values of the independent variables.  A plot of
standardized residuals versus predicted values can show
whether points are equally distributed across all values of the
independent variables.
Autocorrelation-this is common problem in time series data-
can best be tested with Durbin-Watson's
01/28/2022 43
 T-test
A t-test helps to compare whether two groups have
different average values
◦ for example, whether men and women have different
average heights.
This analysis is appropriate whenever you want to
compare the means of two groups.

 Figure 1. Idealized distributions for treated and comparison group posttest values.
 One sample t-test
Impact of one independent variable on
dependent/response variable
◦ Eg. Number of patient on weekly sales of the
store
 Paired samples
Paired samples t-tests typically consist of a sample
of matched pairs of similar units, or one group of
units that has been tested twice (a "repeated
measures" t-test)
◦ Paired sample t-test is used in ‘before-after’ studies.
 A typical example of the repeated measures t-test would
be where subjects are tested prior to a treatment, say for
high blood pressure, and the same subjects are tested
again after treatment with a blood-pressure lowering
medication.
 By comparing the same patient's numbers before and
after treatment
 Independent/unpaired samples/The two-sample
t-test
The independent samples t-test is used when two
separate sets of independent and identically
distributed samples are obtained, one from each of
the two populations being compared.
It tests for significant differences in the means of
two distinct populations.
◦ For example, we can use this test to see if there are
significant differences in how men and women score the
new concept
◦ Eg. Name of two teachers who teach same course
different section
◦ Test its effect on students’ grade/score
 Analysis of variance/ANOVA
 ANOVA, is a technique from statistical interference
that allows us to deal with several populations.
 A hypothesis test to compare the means of more than
two population
 ANOVA test assumes three things:
◦ The population sample must be normal
◦ The observations must be independent in each
sample
◦ Homogeneity: Homogeneity means that the
variance between the groups should be
approximately equal.
 Analysis of variance/ANOVA
These assumptions can be tested using statistical
software. 
◦ The assumption of homogeneity of variance can be tested
using tests such as Levene’s test or the Brown-Forsythe Test. 

◦ Normality of the distribution of the population can be tested

using plots, the values of skeweness and kurtosis, or using
tests such as Shpiro-Wilk or Kolmogorov-Smirnov. 

◦ The assumption of independence can be determined from the

design of the study.
Analysis of variance/ANOVA
One-way ANOVA
 One-factor ANOVA, also called one-way ANOVA
is used when we compare more than two groups,
based on one factor (independent variable).
◦ For example1, we might look at average test
scores for students exposed to one of three
different teaching techniques (three levels of a
single independent variable
◦ Example2: a manufacturing company wants to
compare the productivity of three or more
employees based on working hours.
 Analysis of variance/ANOVA
Two-way ANOVA
When a company wants to compare the employee
productivity based on two factors (2 independent
variables), then it said to be two way (Factorial)
ANOVA. 
◦ For example, based on the working hours and
working conditions, if a company wants to
compare employee productivity, it can do that
through two way ANOVA. 
 Analysis of variance/ANOVA
Multivariate analysis of variance
(MANOVA)
• An extension of ANOVA to more than one
dependent
variables
• Used to test the significance of differences between
the means of two or more groups on two or more
dependent variables, considered simultaneously.
– E.g. the effect of two methods of exercise
treatment on both diastolic and systolic blood
pressure
 CHAPTER SIX
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH REPORT
WRITING AND PRESENTATION

• The ultimate purpose of any research project is

to communicate solutions of a research problem.
• Communication system has two inseparable
parties: the sender and the receiver.
 Types Of Scientific Research Reports
 Can be classified into four: Journal Articles; Conference
Papers; Senior Essay, Thesis and Dissertations; and Books.
◦ Journal Articles are in turn classified based on the reviewing
process or the source of data the research uses.
◦ Based on the review process, Journal Articles are categorized into
Peer Reviewed Articles and Double Blind Reviewed Articles.
◦ A Peer Reviewed Article is a research paper that is examined by
peers whether the research work maintains standards accordingly
increasing research paper quality and credibility.
◦ The process of reviewing a research paper is known as referring.
◦ An article is Double Blind Reviewed Article if identity of both the
researcher and the referee are not known.
◦ That is, when referees review the research article without knowing
personal information about the writer and the writer does not know
who is reviewing his/her paper.
Conference Papers are papers submitted and/or presented
at conferences, workshops, seminars and other forums.
Conference Papers may be classified as Paper with the
Respondent, Panel Presentation, Roundtable, and Poster.
In the Paper with Respondent type of Conference Paper a
speaker submits a thirty-minute paper and a respondent
responds to the paper for about fifteen minutes and the
speaker gives response to the respondent for about fifteen
minutes.
Panel Presentation paper is prepared such that it would be
presented in a setting involving panel sessions led by 3-4
panel speakers each of who talks about fifteen minutes.
The panel may involve individual or group
discussants that give responses in reaction to the
panel speakers.
Roundtable Papers are submitted so as to be
presented in a setting that involves five or more
speakers who speak about ten minutes each.
Poster Papers are visual presentations of
research findings such as posting a hypothesis
and an outline of the findings.
Senior Essay, Thesis, and Dissertation are research works
that are done in partial fulfillment of Bachelor, Masters,
and PhD degrees respectively.
Senior Essay, Thesis, and Dissertation are structurally the
same but differ in the degree of complexity of the research
problem on the one hand and degree of reliability and
validity of the research methodology adopted on the other.
Books, as different from textbook (i.e. a manual of
instruction in any field of study), are compilation of
different research works about one specific field of study.
Alternatively, a Book can also be one research work
divided into several chapters.
Books are usually known as monographs.
 Deciding To Publish Your Research Work

To publish means to make any content available to the

public and the act of publishing is called publication.
If you decide to publish your research paper the first
question you need to ask is what to publish? You can
publish either an abstract or full report from your
research paper.
The next thing you need to consider is choice of
publication outlet.
Depending on the quality of research you may look for
Journals starting from the least reputed up to the most
reputed ones.
Alternatively, you may publish your research paper in a
book form or else you may extract Conference Paper.
 Writing A Scientific Research Report

Main purpose of a scientific research report is to

communicate research results to specific set of
audience.
Before writing your scientific research report you
need to know your audience.
In general, you may categorize your potential
readers or audience into three as: readers with
deep understanding about your research topic,
readers with reasonable understanding about
your research topic, and readers that do not
reasonable understanding about your research
topic.
 Sections Of A Scientific Research Report
A typical survey research report aimed at
publication in a Journal has the following parts:
◦ Abstract,
◦ Introduction,
◦ Literature Review,
◦ Results and Discussion,
◦ Conclusion,
◦ Acknowledgement,
◦ References, and
◦ Appendix (if any).
 Types of presentations

Presentation can be classified into informative,

instructional, arousing, and persuasive types.
Informative presentation has the purpose of informing
the audience about an idea, object, phenomena, etc
using concise and to the point presentation.
◦ Informative presentation has to exclude complications
because it is aimed at informing the basic facts.
◦ An informative presenter has to be concerned as to
how to make the presentation brief and to the point.
◦ Informative presentations are common in events such
as seminars, workshops, and conferences where the
presenter and the audience do not have similar level
of understanding on the subject matter.
Instructional presentation has the purpose of
acquainting the audience with new knowledge and
skill.
◦ Instructional presentation puts a detailed account
of a topic.
◦ Instructional presentation is very common in a
class room teaching, public lectures; seminars,
workshops, and conferences on technical issues
of a discipline.
◦ In instructional presentation, the presenter has
more knowledge and skill on the topic than the
audience.
Arousing presentation has the purpose of making the
audience think about a problem, an event, an object,
an idea, etc and thereby attaching value onto the
event, the object, the idea, etc.
Arousing presentation is common when the audience
is composed of decision makers such as the members
of state council.
 Persuasive presentation has the purpose of convincing the
audience.
◦ The best example of persuasive presentation is defending
your research proposal.
◦ In a persuasive presentation you are required to present
sufficient logic in order to convince the audience to take
your view.
◦ For example, research proposal presentations by
graduating students of Admas University are persuasive
presentations.
◦ In general, a good persuasive presentation may have three
parts, namely; gap reflection or problem statement, need
for intervention, and your proposed intervention.