Principles of Radioactivity

Y.SRINIVAS
Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research,
Department of Atomic Energy,Begumpet,Hyderabad-
500016
srinivas_6727@yahoo.co.in
Radiation !
Atomic Theory: The Nuclear Model of the Atom
Goal of this chapter:
•Begin to study and understand the atom
•Learn the three parts of the atom
•Identify the elements by how these three parts combine
•Arrangement of elements in groups with similar
properties
John Dalton (1766-1844)
Proposed that an element is composed of tiny, indivisible,
indestructible particles.
•Later proven wrong
1. An element is composed of tiny, indivisible, indestructible
particles called atoms.
2. All atoms of an element are identical and have the same
properties.
Atoms of different elements combine to form compounds.
Compounds contain atoms in small whole number ratios.
e.g. Each H2O particle has one O and two H atoms
5. Atoms can combine to form different compounds.
e.g. Carbon and oxygen can combine to form CO or CO2.
 1.Thomson Model of the Atom
•Glass tube with two metal plates at either end.
He evacuated the air and filled it with an inert gas.
•Voltage applied to the metal plates and a glowing beam
appeared
•Energy called a cathode ray since it emanated from the
negative cathode.
•Once a magnetic field was applied, the cathode ray bent
toward the positively charged metal plate.
•First discovery of negatively charged particles, electrons and
positively charged particles, protons.
Atom was divisible after all !!
From this, JJ Thomson was able to measure mass-to-charge
ratios
Ernest Rutherford
By 1911, Rutherford had become a distinguished scientist with many important
discoveries to his credit. (He received the Nobel prize in chemistry in 1908)
One of his main areas of interest involved alpha (α) particles
- positively charged particles with a mass ~7500 times that of an e-“identical to
a helium atom stripped of electrons”
In studying the flight of these particles through air, Rutherford and his students
found that some of the α particles were deflected by something.
Puzzled, he designed an experiment that involved directing α particles toward
thin metal foil (The Gold Foil Experiment).
Surrounding the foil was a detector coated with a substance that produced tiny
flashes wherever it was hit by an α particle.
The results of the experiment were NOT what Rutherford expected.
Although most α particles passed through the foil, some of the particles were
deflected at large angles.
Modern Atomic Theory
•Every atom contains an extremely small, extremely
dense nucleus.
•All of the positive charge and nearly all of the mass
of an atom are concentrated in the nucleus.
•The nucleus is surrounded by a much larger volume
of nearly empty space that makes up the rest of the
atom.
•The space outside the nucleus is very thinly
populated by electrons, the total charge of which
exactly balances the positive charge of the nucleus.
• 1895: The Discovery of the X-ray
• Radiation was discovered by Wilhelm Conrad
Roentgen on November 8, 1895
• 1896: > 1000 papers published on X Rays.
• Roentgen received the first Nobel Prize in
physics in 1901
MILESTONES OF QUANTUM PHYSICS:
J.J.Thomson Established electron as a fundamental
particle of nature. He measured its charge to mass
ratio using a Crooke's tube.

Electric current = flow of electrons

Animation of electrons moving

and being deflected by an electric
Crooke's tube:
or magnetic field.
Evacuated tube
Visualization of
electron beam.
Yodh 10
Sir Joseph John "J. J."Thomson was an English physicist.

Thomson was awarded the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics for the
discovery of the electron and for his work on the conduction of
electricity in gases
• What Happens in the Crookes/Hittorf Tube?
• 1. Phosphorescence/ Fluorescence: The glow
from the tube
• Fluorescence: rapid (10-8 – 10-9 sec)
• Phosphorescence: slow
• Bremsstrahlung (X-rays): The Mysterious Rays:
• Roentgen actually discovered “Bremsstrahlung”
(braking radiation)
• An electron hitting a target can do one of two things:
• Collision with an orbital electron
• Deceleration in the field of the nucleus

• Charged particle changing acceleration emits

electromagnetic radiation: x rays.
• 1896: The Discovery of Radioactivity: Henri Becquerel
• Becquerel working on fluorescence/phosphorescence
• Begins testing other substances:
• uranyl potassium sulfate on photographic plate in black
paper
• placed in the sun…
• ….the sun was not necessary.
• 1903 Nobel Prize in physics
• 1897: The Discoveries of Marie Sklodowska Curie and Pierre
Curie
• Marie Curie: PhD project, repeated Becquerel’s expt with U and
Th
• Purifies substances from pitchblende
• More radioactive than uranium or thorium:…..polonium
• Continues to purify a chemically different substance (sulfides
acid insoluble; calcium barium, soluble)
• Purifies sample of radium (the activity of 1.00 g pure radium will
later be defined as 1 “curie”.
• Marie and Pierre Curie share the 1903 Nobel Prize in physics with
H. Becquerel
 1910: Ernest Rutherford
• Expert in radiation
• Famous “Gold-Foil
Experiment”
• Discovered the presence of
the nucleus by firing alpha
particles at a sheet of gold
foil
• Born on 30 August 1871
Brightwater,
Tasman District, New
Zealand
• Awarded Nobel Prize in
Chemistry (1908)
Rutherford and his Nuclear Atom: 1898 -1911

Ernest Rutherford used alpha rays to discover the nucleus

of the atom. The nucleus was positvely charged and
contained almost all of the mass ofthe atom. Most of the
atom was empty space.

Atomic size
Electron cloud

Classical physics required

that this atom is unstable
electrons would fall into
the nucleus in 10-7 sec!

Nuclear size Yodh 16

• Rutherford Nuclear Model
• He projected Alpha particles from polonium source onto a thin gold foil
and scattered alpha particles at different angles were measured by
counting the scintillations that were produced on the ZnS screen. The
following observations were made: (i) Most of the alpha particles
passed through the foil as if the meta foil was having empty space and
transparent to the incoming alphas and (ii) A few of the alphas were
deflected with large angles of scattering indicating encounter with
heavy mass having positive charge. From these He concluded that most
of the space in the atom is empty and all the mass is centered in a very
small volume which he called the "nucleus". He concluded that the
nucleus is massive and has positive charge. From these experiments, for
the first time, nuclear charge and size were calculated. Nuclear size
turned out to be negligibly small (about 10 -14 m) compared to atomic
size (about 10-10 m). If we assume that the atom is as large as a cricket
field then the nucleus is of cricket ball size. With the discovery of
neutron in 1932 by J. Chadwick, structure of the nucleus became clear.
Now it is well known that nucleus consists of protons and neutrons i.e.
nucleons.
• Max Planck (1900)
Light as a wave could explain most, but not all,
experimental observations. Notable exceptions were
the photoelectric effect, and blackbody radiation.
• To explain blackbody radiation, Planck proposed that
light energy is quantized.
• The energy of the light wave is an integral number of
quanta.
• E = hυ
E = energy of 1 quantum,
υ is the frequency (s-1),
h = 6.62 x 10-34 J-s (Planck’s constant)
• Plank received the Nobel Prize in 1918 for the theory
that light energy is quantized
 The Quantum of Light or the Photon
Particle nature of light was proposed by
Einstein in 1905 to explain the photo-electric
effect. Photo-electric effect – automatic door
openers in grocery stores. Particles of light
are called light quanta or photons.

Energy of a Photon = h (frequency of light)

h is a fundamental constant of nature and it is
very small in size. E = hυ , E= h c/λ
the shorter the wavelength, the greater the energy of the quanta

Einstein received the Nobel Prize in 1921 for his work on the
photoelectric effect.
Yodh 19
 Planck and quantization of atomic “ vibrations “

Before Einstein, Planck postulated from study

of radiation from hot bodies that the radiating
atoms can only radiate energy in discrete amounts
– or that atoms exist only in discrete states, called
Quantum states.
This was the birth of quantum physics in 1900

Yodh 20
 Wave nature of material bodies:

If light, which classically is a wave,

can have particle nature
As shown by Planck and Einstein,

Can material particles exhibit wave nature ?

Prince Louis de Broglie while doing

his Ph.D. research said particles
should have wave like properties.

Yodh 21
THE BOHR ATOM:

Bohr proposed a revolutionary model:

An atom with discrete (Quantum) states
– an ad hoc model

Bohr model explained how atoms emit light

quanta and their stability. He combined the
postulates of Planck and Einstein to build
characteristic energy states that atoms should
possess. Model gave excellent agreement with
experiment on atomic spectra.(1913)

Yodh 22
 Bohr atom

Bohr’s atom model achieved three important results:

1. Atoms are stable

2. Different atoms of the same element are identical

3. Atoms regenerate if they are taken apart and

then allowed to reform.

Yodh 23
 THE BOHR ATOM:

Understanding the origin of Bohr's model required an

essential bold step – enter Louis de Broglie.

Yodh 24
 Wave Nature of Matter
Louis de Broglie in 1923 proposed that
matter particles should exhibit wave
properties just as light waves exhibited
particle properties. These waves have
very small wavelengths in most situations
so that their presence was difficult to observe

These waves were observed a few years later by Davisson and

G.P. Thomson with high energy electrons. These electrons show
the same pattern when scattered from crystals as X-rays of similar
wave lengths.
Electron microscope
picture of a fly

Yodh 25
ATOMIC STRUCTURE (6C12)

FEMS-BARC-Vzg 9th Feb 2012

 Nuclei are described using the following nomenclature:
• A
Element
Z
• Z is the atomic number, the number of protons: this
defines the element.
• A is called the “mass number” A = N + Z.
• N is the number of neutrons (N = A - Z)
• Nuclide: A species of nucleus of a given Z and A.
• Isotope: Nuclides of an element (i.e. same Z) with different
N.
• Isotone: Nuclides having the same N.
• Isobar: Nuclides having the same A.
• Isotopes
• Nuclides that have same atomic number with
different mass numbers. e.g 92U233 , 92U235 , 92U238
and are isotopes of uranium whose atomic
number is 92 with neutron numbers of 141, 143
and 146 respectively. This difference in the
number of neutrons obviously has no effect on
chemical properties. It does, however, result in
different physical properties such as boiling point
and freezing point. In other words, isotopes of the
same element have different physical properties.
• Isobars
• Nuclides that have same mass number with different
atomic and neutron numbers, e.g, 52Te132 , 53I132 and
54Xe 132
are isobars of mass number 132. Since they
are isotopes of different elements, they are
chemically separable.
•   Isotones
• Nuclides that have same neutron number with
different atomic and mass numbers. e.g 6C13 , 7N14 and
8O are isotones with neutron number 7. Since
15

isotones are isotopes of different elements, they are

chemically separable
• Isomers
Isomers are those nuclides that have same mass,
atomic and neutron numbers, but with different
energies. .e.g, 60Co and 60mCo are Isomers of 60Co.
They are chemically same.
 
Particles Symbol Charge Mass
Amu Kg

Proton P +1e 1.007825 1.679 x 10-27

Neutron N 0 1.008665 1.680 x 10-27

Electron e -1 e 0.00055 9.137 x 10-31

 

amu : atomic mass unit equal th of mass of C-12 and equal to 931.45 MeV
  to1/12
• One Atomic mass is defined as 1/12 th the
mass of 6C12
Avogadro’s Number =
6.023 x 1023
Mass of
6.023 x 1023 atoms of 6C12 = 12 g.
Mass of one atom of
C12 = 12/ 6.023 x 1023 grams.
1 AMU = 1/12 X mass of one atom of C12
1 A.M.U = 1/12 x 12/
6.023 x 1023 grams
1 A.M.U =
1.67x 10-27 Kg
Relation between a.m.u and MeV
E= mc2 taking 1 A.M.U = 1.67x 10-27 Kg and C= 3x 108 m/s

= (
1.67x 10-27) x ( 3x 108 ) 2 = 1.49x 10-10 J

1
1.6x 10-13 J
M.eV =

E= 1.49x 10-10 / 1.6x 10-13 MeV = 931.5 MeV

• Radiation can be defined as the propagation
of energy through matter or space. It can be
in the form of electromagnetic waves or
energetic particles

• Ionizing radiation has the ability to knock

an electron from an atom, i.e. to ionize.

• alpha particles
• beta particles
• neutrons
• gamma rays
• x-rays
Non-ionizing radiation does not have enough
energy
to ionize atoms in the material it interacts with.

• microwaves
• visible light
• radio waves
• TV waves
• Ultraviolet radiation (except for the very shortest
wavelengths)
Electromagnetic spectrum
Electromagnetic Spectrum
 Properties of nucleus
• Nucleus is made of protons and neutrons mainly
• Mass of proton: 1.007825 amu,Rest Mass Energy: 936.8MeV
• Mass of neutron:1.008665amu,Rest Mass Energy: 936.8MeV
• 1 amu = 1.67x 10-27 Kg ( E= mc2 ; E= 1amuX 931.5 MeV)
• Charge of the proton: 1 unit = 1.6x10-19 C = 4.8x10-10 stat C
•Radius of nucleus is very small in the order of fermi (10-15m)
R  A 1/3  R= R0 A 1/3; R0 = 1.3 fermi
• Radius of the atom is in the order of angstrom units(10-10 m)
• Highest density;almost same for all nuclei;independent of A
(Density of nucleus  2.2x1017 Kg/m3 =
2.2x1014 gm/cc) (1gm/cc =103 kg/m3)
Yodh 39
The Four Fundamental Forces

Yodh 40
 20

Forces
Electro- Weak Strong Gravity
magnetic
atoms beta falling
molecules decay nuclei objects
optics planet
electronics solar particles orbits
telecom. fusion stars
galaxies

inverse short short inverse

square law range range square law

± gluon
photon W , Z0 graviton

Institute of Physics Peter Kalmus Particles and the Universe

Yodh 41
Thomson (1897): Discovers electron

1x10 10 m

1x10 15 m

0.7 x10 15 m

 0.7 x10 18 m

Summary of Nuclear Forces:
Nuclei give off energy (i.e. radiation) in an attempt to become more stable
Nuclear instability can be traced to the interaction of i) Coulomb and
ii) strong nuclear force.
Coulomb Strong
Nuclear

repulsive attractive
p+ - p+ p+ - p+, n - n ,
p+ - n
doesn't saturate short range; falls off
quickly
weak (eg. e- to nucleus, ~ few eV to .1 MeV) very strong (several
thus, atom is mostly empty space decades of MeV nucleus
is
densely packed

Due to the Coulomb-nuclear force balance, nuclei exhibit a roughly constant

density and radius
 Nuclear forces
• EXTREMELY short range ATTRACTIVE FORCE
( few fermi )
(Gravitational force between two protons / Nuclear force 
10-42)
• It must act between the nucleons, whether they are
protons or neutrons (n-n, p-p, n-p)
• Purely quantum mechanical.
• Involves the exchange of mesons and virtual pions.
•Charge and mass independent.
• Spin dependent
• Hard core forces ( distance is less than 0.5 fermi)
•The STRONG force holds the nucleus together
 The distance required is about the diameter of a proton
or a neutron. If a proton or neutron can get closer than
this distance to another nucleon, the exchange of
mesons can occur, and the particles will stick to each
other. If they can't get that close, the strong force is too
weak to make them stick together, and other competing
forces (usually the electromagnetic force) can make the
particles move apart.
One thing that helps reduce the repulsion between
protons within a nucleus is the presence of any neutrons.
Since they have no charge they don't add to the repulsion
already present, and they help separate the protons from
each other so they don't feel as strong a repulsive force
from any other nearby protons. Also, the nucleus is
tightly packed so that nucleons can exchange mesons
easily. This way, a nucleus is not destroyed.
The mass of a nucleus is always less than the sum of the
individual masses of the protons and neutrons which
make it up. When forming a nucleus, the nucleons
transform some of their masses into the form of energy.
The nuclear binding energy can be measured by Einstein’s
favourite formula;
Nuclear binding energy = Dmc2

Where Dm is the difference between the masses of

individual nucleons and the nucleus.
 Nuclear Binding Energy
• Amountof Energy either required or released when two
nucleons are tied or broken, which is in the order of MeV.
• Mass Defect or Mass Deficit
m = (A-Z) m(n) + Z m(p) - m(A,Z)
• Einstein’s Mass Energy Relationship:
E = mc2; m is mass and c is speed of light in vacuum.
1 amu of mass defect liberates 931.5 MeV energy 1
kg of mass defect liberates 9  1016 J of energy.
• Total Binding Energy
TBE = mc2 = [(A-Z) m(n) + Z m(p) - m(A,Z)]c2,
Where, m(n) and m(p) are the masses of the neutron and the
proton, respectively.
•Example: 1H2 m(d) = 2.014102 amu
m(n) = 1.008665 amu, m(p) = 1.007825 amu
m = 1.008665 + 1.007825 - 2.014102 = 0.002388 amu
TBE = 0.002388x931.5 MeV = 2.224 MeV
• Average Binding Energy

ABE = mc2/A = [{(A-Z) m(n) + Z m(p) - m(A,Z)}c2] / A.

Average Binding Energy for some typical nuclei:
Fe = 8.8 MeV D = 1.1 MeV
U = 7.6 MeV Th = 7.8 MeV
• Magic Numbers: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126
(Examples:- 2He4, 8O16, 20 Ca40
, 82 Pb 208
)
For nuclei to be stable, there are some “magic numbers”.
These are the numbers of neutrons and protons in a
nucleus. If a nucleus has that much p or n, it is found to
be more stable than the others. This numbers are
usually even, for symmetry. (symmetry provides
strength in bounds and thus stability.)
These magic numbers are:
For protons: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82.
For neutrons: 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, 126.
Average Binding Energy Curve
 N/Z RATIO & NUCLEAR STABILITY

NUCLI N Z N/Z EC & + unstabe

DE
2
H 1 1 1 Drip line

Proton Number
12
C 6 6 1
Drip line
40
Ca 20 20 1
90
Zr 50 40 1.25
120
Sn 70 50 1.40
- unstabe
202
Hg 122 80 1.525 Neutron number

DISTURB N/Z RATIO, INSTABILITY : ISOTOPE PRODUCTION

DRIP LINES Bp=0 & Bn=0
Nuclear Stability
 Radioactive Decay


The process of
unstable atoms
spontaneously
emitting radiation
resulting in a new
element Parent Nucleus Daughter Nucleus
Potassium-40 Calcium-40
Unstable atom Stable atom
 Units of Radioactivity

1 Becquerel = 1 disintegration per second

1 Curie = 3.7 1010 Becquerel
 Radioactive Half -Life

Is the time taken for half of the

radioactive substance to decay.
The half life can range from a millionth
of a second to millions of years.
 Half Life
Total number of atoms

Half Life 1 2 3 4 5 6

& Parent & Daughter radionuclides Stable

Another Contribution from Rutherford:
Half-life of Radioactive Atoms

The half-life of a radioactive substance, is the time required for

one half of it to decay.

Science Park HS -- Honors Chemistry

 Radioactivity
• Activity (A): Rate of disintegration of radioactive nuclides A=
dN/dt
• Units of Radioactivity:
SI Unit is Becquerel (Bq) which is 1 disintegration per second Other
Units are Curie (Ci) and Rutherford (Rd) 1Ci
= 3.7  1010 dps = 3.7  1010 Bq.
1 Rd = 106 dps = 106 Bq.
• Curie: Amount of radioactivity liberated by 1 g of Ra.
• Law of Radioactivity: Rate of disintegration is proportional to the
number of particles present.
• –(dN/dt)  N  –(dN/dt) = N;  is the decay constant.
Number of particles present after time t is N = N0e-t.
•Disintegration of a Radioactive substance follows an
exponential process hence it takes an infinite time to
decay completely
• Half life (T) and Mean life () are commonly used
• Half life (T): It is the time taken by a RA substance to
reduce its activity by half of its original
At t = T, N = N0/2  N = N0e-t.  e-T = ½
T = ln2 / λ  T = 0.693 / λ
• Number of particles present after ‘n’ half lives
N = N0 / 2n
Mean Life (): Integrate the time period over which each
nucleus lives over all nuclei which ultimately decay.
 = 1/ λ  T = 0.693 
Example: What is the radioactivity of one gram of
uranium-238.
dN
 N
dt
23
dN 0.693 6.023 10
 
dt T1 238
2

23
dN 0.693 6.023 10
 9 8

dt 4.5 10  .31536 10 238
dN
 12358dis / sec
dt
Kinds of Radioactivity

The three main decays are Alpha, Beta and Gamma

Passage of radiation through matter
depends on
Type of radiation
charged particles (e.g., electrons, etc.)
high energy photons or x-rays
Energy of radiation (e.g., keV or MeV)
Nature of matter being traversed
(atomic number
and density
Types of Radiation
• Alpha radiation = alpha particles, same as a He nuclei, (2p
2n)
from the alpha decay of heavy elements
• Beta radiation = beta particles (β- electrons, β+ positrons)
from beta decay, i.e. neutron conversion inside the nucleus
(n → p + e- + n − or permutations)
• Gamma radiation = photons (electromagnetic radiation)
from de-excitation of a nucleus
(usually) following other nuclear decay
• Electromagnetic radiation = all photons
also from sources other than nuclear decay
• Heavy Ions and Neutrons
particulate
Electromagnetic
Types of charged particle
radiation
relevant to Nuclear Medicine
Particle Symbol Mass Charge
Electron e-, β - 511 keV/c2 -1
Positron e+, β+ 511 keV/c2 +1
Alpha α 3700 MeV/c2 +2
Passage of charged particles through matter
Gradual loss of particle’s energy
Major source of interactions is the electrostatic
force
Like charges repel
Unlike charges attract
Energy transferred to nearby atoms and
molecules
Ionization
Excitation
Bremsstrahlung
Ionization
Interaction between charged radiation and
orbital electron
Energy transferred from passing particle to
electron
If E > ionization potential, electron is freed
Excitation
Energy is transferred to an orbital electron, but not
enough to free it.
Electron is left in an excited state and will
subsequently return to its ground state giving off
lower-energy electromagnetic radiation
 Interaction of ionising radiation
Excitations
• Orbital electron of an atom raised to a higher
energy state
Ionizations
• One or more electrons removed from atom
• Results in ion pair
Both processes leads to transfer of energy
 Ionizations
• Responsible for the biological, chemical and
physical effects
• Enables detection and measurement of
ionizing radiation
Ionizing Radiation
Electromagnetic Particulate
Charged Uncharged
 Interaction of Charged particles
• Directly ionizing radiation deposits energy in
the medium through direct coulomb
interactions with atomic orbital electrons and
atomic nuclei
 Collisional losses
- ionization / excitation
 Radiative losses
- Bremsstrahlung via interactions with
nuclear field
 Specific Ionization
• Number of ion pairs produced per unit path
length of charged particle
• Directly proportional to mass and charge of
the particle
• Inversely proportional to particle’s velocity
• Alpha particles have high specific ionization
• Beta particles have 1/7300 of the mass of
alpha particle and only unit charge
• Beta particles have lower specific ionization
 Linear Energy Transfer
• Energy absorbed in the medium per unit path
length of the particle is called its Linear
Energy Transfer (LET)

• High LET radiations have greater biological

effectiveness per unit dose than those of low
LET radiations
 Range of Charged Particles in Matter
• The distance travelled by the particle before
coming to rest is known as its range
• Range depends upon - Energy
- Charge
- Mass of the particle
- Density
- Atomic number of medium
 Range of Charged Particles in Matter
• Empirical relation between the range (in
g/cm2) and energy (in MeV) of electrons of
energies more than 0.6 MeV is given by the
relation
Rmax = 0.53 Emax – 0.106
 Radiative Collision
• A fast moving charged particle passing close
to a nucleus undergoes deflection
• Energy lost in the form of electromagnetic
radiation known as bremsstrahlung
• Production of bremsstrahlung is an important
consideration in the shielding of high energy
beta particles
• Intensity of bremsstrahlung increases with the
atomic number of the medium and decreases
with increase in the mass of the particle
 Electromagnetic Radiation
• Wave like disturbances which arise in
association with vibrating electric charges
• Radio waves, IR radiation, visible light, ultra-
violet radiation, x-rays, gamma rays
• Differ only in their wavelength or frequency
C = λν
• Energy of e.m radiation is given by
E = hν
• Among e.m radiations only x-rays and gamma
rays have sufficient energy to ionise matter
 Bremsstrahlung
Some particles will interact with the nucleus itself.
The particle will be deflected by the strong electrical
forces exerted on it by the nucleus.
The particle is rapidly decelerated and loses energy
in the “collision”. The energy appears as a photon of
electromagnetic radiation.
Collisonal versus radiation losses
Ionization and excitation are collisonal losses.
Bremsstrahlung production is called a radiation loss.
Radiation losses increase with increasing particle
energy and increasing atomic number of the
absorbing material.
Even though high-energy electrons (β−) in nuclear
medicine dissipate most of their energy in collisional
losses. Bremsstrahlung production can be important
when shielding large quantities of energetic β-
emitters (e.g., tens of mCi of 32P). How should you
shield?
Charged particle ranges (α particles)
α particles tend to track in straight lines and lose energy in a
more or less continuous slowing down process.
Bragg ionization peak near the end of its range.
The distance it travels (range) depend only upon its initial
energy and its average energy loss rate in the medium.
The range for an α particle emitted in tissue is on the order of
μm’s
Charged particle ranges
(Bragg Ionization Peak)
Charged particle ranges
(β particles)
Electrons or β particles have ranges that are quite
variable from one electron to the next, even for electrons
of exactly the same energy in a specific absorbing
material.
This is because of the different types of scattering events
the β particle can encounter (i.e., scattering events,
bremsstrahlung-producing collisions, etc.).
The β range is often given as the maximum distance the
most energetic β can travel in the medium.
The range for β particles emitted in tissue is on the order
of mm’s.
Interactions of Heavy Charged Particles1
1. ENERGY-LOSS MECHANISMS
A heavy charged particle traversing matter loses energy primarily
through the ionization and excitation of atoms. (Except at low
velocities, a heavy charged particle loses a negligible amount of
energy in nuclear collisions.) The moving charged particle exerts
electromagnetic forces on atomic electrons and imparts energy to
them. The energy transferred may be sufficient to knock an
electron out of an atom and thus ionize it, or it may leave the atom
in an excited, nonionized state. A heavy charged particle can
transfer only a small fraction of its energy in a single electronic
collision. Its deflection in the collision is negligible. Thus, a heavy
charged particle travels an almost straight path through matter,
losing energy almost continuously in small amounts through
collisions with atomic electrons, leaving ionized and excited atoms
in its wake.
 Charged-particle tracks

Ionizations and excitations along particle tracks in water,

for a 5.4 MeV α-particle (top left), for electrons generated
following the absorption of a 1.5 keV X-ray photon (top
right) and electrons generated during the decay of iodine-
125.
 ALPHA PARTICLES
• Alpha particle is 4He nucleus (having mass 4 amu and
doubly charged)-a closely bound group of two protons-two
neutrons.
• Alpha particle spectrum is discrete.
• A radioactive nuclide when emits an alpha particle, Z
decreases by 2 units and A decreases by 4 units; the
daughter element finds its place .
• Heavy radioactive elements, both naturally occurring
ones with Z between 84 and 92 and the artificially Trans-
uranium elements having Z greater than 92 decay by alpha
particle decay.
• As a result of alpha particle decay, the daughter product
is closer to the stability region than the original parent
isotope.
• After alpha decay, the daughter nucleus may remain in
excited state which later on goes to ground state emitting
one or more gamma photons, e.g.,
238
92 U  234
90Th + 4
2He +  [0.093 (4%),
0.063 (3.5%)]
• Being much heavier than electrons, these are not
significantly deflected.
• Being doubly charged, these cause intense ionization and
lose energy rapidly resulting in a short and well defined
range.
• Range depends on the energy of the alpha particles and
the density of the medium.
R α E3/2 R = a E3/2 a = 0.315 R in cm, E in MeV
Rs = 0.312 R A1/2 / ρ ρ = density of the solid of mass A
• Energy of alpha particles varies from 4 to 8 MeV.
• Maximum range of alpha particles varies from 7 to 8 cm in
air (m in rock). [5 MeV alpha particles have range in air
and aluminum about 3.5 cm and 0.0025 cm respectively].
Do not present shielding problem. However, an alpha
emitting isotope when injected in the body, they do present
a health hazard.
• Represent the surface activity of the sample, mass of the
sample does not enter into the calculation of the activity.
• Not suitable for field assignments.
 Alpha decay
High value of alpha particle binding energy → EKIN sufficient for escape from nucleus →
A
Relation between decay energy and kinetic energy of alpha particles: Z X AZ42Y  42 He
Decay energy: Q = (mi – mf –mα)c2
Kinetic energies of nuclei after decay (nonrelativistic approximation):
EKIN f = (1/2)mfvf2 EKIN α = (1/2) mαvα2
m
From momentum conservation law: mfvf = mαvα → vf  v ( mf >> mα → vf << vα)
mf

From energy conservation law: EKIN f + EKIN α = Q (1/2) mαvα2 + (1/2)mfvf2 = Q

2
We modify equation and 1 m  1 1 m  m  mf
m f   v   m v2  m v2    1  E KIN  Q
we introduce: 2  mf  2 2  mf  mf
mf A4
Kinetic energy of alpha particle: E KIN  Q Q
m  m f A
Typical value of kinetic energy is 5 MeV. For example for 222Rn: Q = 5.587 MeV and EKIN
α= 5.486 MeV.

Barrier penetration:
Particle (Z,A) impacts on nucleus (Z,A) – necessity of potential barrier overcoming.
For Coulomb barier is the highest point in the place, 1 Z Ze 2 1 Z Ze 2
VC  
where nuclear forces start to act: 4 0 r0 (A1α 3  A1 3 ) 4 0 R
 Barrier height is VCB ≈ 25 MeV for nuclei with A=200.
Problem of penetration of α particle from  nucleus through
potential barrier → it is possible only because of quantum
physics.
Assumptions of theory of α particle penetration:

1) Alpha particle can exist at nuclei separately

2) Particle is constantly moving and it is bonded at nucleus
by potential barrier bound state
3) It exists some (relatively very small) probability of quasistationary
state
barrier penetration.

Probability of decay λ per time unit: λ = νP

where ν is number of impacts on barrier per time unit and P probability of barrier penetration.

We assumed, that α particle v E KIN E KIN c 2

    10 21
is oscillating along diameter of nucleus: 2R 2m R 2 2E 0 R 2

Probability P = f(EKINα/VCB). Quantum physics is needed for its derivation.

 BETA PARTICLES
• Beta particles are electrons and positrons and have
nuclear origin because of inter-conversion of neutrons and
protons. 0n
1
1p + -1e + 0
1 0 0

• Beta particle spectrum is continuous.

• Average energy of a beta particle ~ 1/3 (Emax) = 1/3 (End
point energy in the continuous spectrum of beta decay).
On an average two third of the maximum energy is taken by
neutrino. Neutrino was postulated by Pauli to satisfy the
laws of conservation of energy and momentum and has
zero charge, 1/2 spin, very small mass.
• Negative beta emission occurs with isotopes having an
excess of neutrons, i.e., isotopes lying to the left of the
stability region in the stability curve.
• Positive beta emission and K-electron capture occurs
with isotopes having an excess of protons, i.e., isotopes
lying to the right of the stability region in the stability
•After beta decay, the daughter product may remain in an
excited state later on goes to ground state emitting its
(daughter product) characteristic gamma photon/photons.
•The range of beta particles emitted by radioactive isotope
is not well defined for two obvious reasons: (1) beta
particles are produced with a spectrum of energies from
zero up to their maximum energy and (2) these do not travel
in straight lines but in zig-zag paths because of change of
direction at each ionization interaction.
• Range of beta particles of 5 MeV energy in air and
aluminum are about 2000 cm and 1 cm respectively.
• Represent the surface activity of the sample, mass of the
sample does not enter into the calculation of the activity.
 Beta Decay
Unlike alpha decay, which occurs primarily among nuclei in specific areas
The periodic table, beta decay is possible for certain isotopes of all elements

b-: change a neutron to a proton (negatron decay)


A
Z XN A
Y
Z 1 N 1   


b- is an electron

b+: change a proton to a neutron

A
Z X N  Z A1YN 1     
β+ is an anti-electron or positron
EC: electron capture, change a proton to a neutron
A  A
Z XN e  Y Z 1 N 1 
 
n  p  e 

p  n  e 

234 234 
90 Th  91 Pa   
11 11 
C  B   
6 5
 Negatron (β-) Decay

A
Z XN A
Z 1 N 1 Y     


A
Z XN
Parent
A
Z X

Neutron rich nuclei;

β1 Large N/Z ratio
t1/2

β2
γ

Daughter
A
Y
Z1

A
Y
Z 1 N 1

90
38 Sr 90
39 Y   
  t1/ 2  29.1 y
32 32 
15 P  S     t1/ 2  14.3 d
16
 Beta decay – Energy spectrum

β-
• Emax
Number of beta particles

β+
• Antineutrino in β-
– No charge
– No magnetic moment
– Near zero rest mass
– Spin ½
– Conservation of lepton
Beta-particle energy number
Etrans = Enegatron + Eantineutrino + Erecoil
Antineutrino discovery

  p n

1953 by F. Reines and C.L. Cowan Jr.

 Positron (β ) Decay +
b+: change a proton to a neutron
A A 
Z XN Y Z 1 N 1   
β+ is an anti-electron, or positron

22
11 Na 1022Ne      t1/ 2  2.605 y
11
6 C 115B       t1/ 2  20.3 min
• Proton rich nuclei
• Similar spectrum as in negatron decay
• Change a proton to a neutron  positive electron is emitted by the nucleus
and an orbital electron originally present in the parent atom is lost
to form a neutral daughter atom.
• equivalent to the creation of a positron-electron pair from the available transition energy
• 2 x 0.511 MeV = 1.02 MeV necessary to create 2 electrons
• β+ decay is possible only when the energy of the transition is greater than 1.02 MeV
 The fate of the positron
• Conversion to pure energy by positron
annihilation
• After the positron slows down to
energies comparable to that of
surroundings
• Formation of 1, 3, or 0 annihilation
photons, depending on the spin
orientation of the electron-positron
pair
• If the spins are parallel  triple state
• If the spins are anti-parallel  a single
state
• Positronium “atom”  light “isotope”
of hydrogen, with the positron
substituting for the nuclear proton • Ortho positronium; paralell spins
10-7 s
• Para positronium; anti-parallel spins
10-10 s
Electron capture: It is the process in
which the nucleus captures an
electron which basically converts a
proton into neutron.
 Electron Capture (EC orε)
EC: electron capture, change a proton to a neutron
A
Z X  e   Z A1YN 1  
N + x-rays or Auger electrons
excited + inner bremsstrahlung
nucleus

172
71 Lu 172
70Yb  x rays  Auger electrons   ; t1 / 2  6.70 d
188
78 Pt 188
77 Ir  x rays  Auger electrons   ; t1 / 2  10.2 d
 Spontaneous fission:
In this process the nucleus
splits into two fragment
nuclei of roughly half the
mass of the parent. This
process is only barely
detectable in competition
with the more prevalent
256 alpha decay for uranium,
100 Fm(T1  2.6h) but for some of the heaviest
2 artificial nuclei, such as
254 fermium-256
Cf (T1  60.5h)
98
2
Branching ratios & Partial decay:
Often different decay modes can
compete from same element.
222
) 87 Fr
%
0.06
α(
226 β- (83%)
89 Ac EC
(17
226
90 Th
%)

226
88 Ra
 GAMMA RAYS
• EM radiation of nuclear origin having very short
wavelength (10-11 to 10-15 m).
• According to quantum mechanics EM radiation can be
regarded as being propagated as discrete quanta or
photons the energy of which is given by E = hc/.
• Few 100 meters of range in air.
• 30-40 cm in rocks and soils of normal density (2.7gm/cc).
• Present serious shielding problem in any situation where
it is produced in large quantities, e.g. nuclear reactor.
• Represents bulk or volume activity of the sample, mass of
the sample enters into the calculation of activity.
•Various isotopes emit characteristic gamma radiation:
measurement of intensities gives their respective
concentration.
γ-decay: Gamma emission usually follows 
and - decays.
Half-lives of  emissions are usually quite
short (order of 10-9sec.)
Short-lived transitions are known as isomeric
transitions &
Long-lived are called ISOMERS or ISOMERIC
STATES (meta-stable states).
Meta stable states are written as Ag or
110m

110
Agm
 Gamma Decay
A * A
Z X  X Z
110 m 110
47 Ag  Ag   t1/ 2  249.8 d
47
115 m 115
49 In In   t1/ 2  4.5 h
49

• Pure γ decay
• Internal conversion (IC)
• Pair production (PP)
Pure Gamma-Ray Emission

234m
Pa
γ
99.8%
234g
Pa β1, t1/2 = 1.17 m

0.2%
β2, t1/2 = 6.70 h
U
234

91 Pa 92 U

2 keV < E < 7 MeV; monoenergetic

Internal Conversion: Internal conversion is a
process in which a nucleus with excess energy
can get rid of that energy without altering its
proton or neutron count. The excess energy of
the nucleus is transmitted to the orbital
electron of an atom, which is subsequently
ejected from the atom. It can occur only if the
amount of energy given to the orbital electron
exceeds its binding energy. X-rays are emitted
as the atom attempts to restore its neutrality.
Internal conversion usually competes with
gamma radiation as an energy-shedding
mechanism.
 Internal Conversion

The excited nucleus transfers the energy to an orbital electron, which is then ejected from the
atom (monoenergetic).

EIC electron = Etrans – BEatomic electron

IC and gamma decay are competing processes

Internal conversion coefficient (α)

α= Fraction of decays occurring by gamma emission/Fraction of decays occurring by IC

Primary Radiation
Nuclear Deexcitation
 Photopeak
Internal Conversion
Þ Photopeak
Cs-137
Secondary Radiation from Matter
Compton Scattering
 Backscatter Peak
Annihilation
Þ 511 KeV peak
Fluorescence
74.96 KeV peak

Escape from Detector

Compton Scattering
 Compton Continuum
Pair Production
Þ Escape Peaks

Detector Anomalies
Poor Resolution
 Peak Spreading
Simultaneous Detections
 Summing Internal Conversion occurs when the multipole
electric fields of the excited
Barium nucleus couple to the orbital
electrons, causing one to be ejected. The
electron is never detected, but when another
electron fills the vacancy, a characteristic X-ray is
emitted.
 Pair Production
• E > 1.02 MeV

A * A  
Z X  X e e
Z

16m
O  16O
Etrans = 6.05 MeV
t1/2 = 7 x 10-11 s
 Type of Nature of the Nuclear Penetrating power, and what Ionising power - the ability to
radiation radiation Symbol will block it (more dense remove electrons from atoms to
emitted & (higher only) (higher material, more radiation is form positive ions
symbol only) absorbed BUT smaller mass or
charge of particle, more
penetrating)

a helium Low penetration, biggest mass Very high ionising power, the
       nucleus of 2
protons and 2
          and charge, stopped by a few
cm of air or thin sheet of
biggest mass and charge of the
three radiation's, the biggest
Alpha neutrons, mass paper 'punch'!
= 4amu, charge
= +2

high kinetic Moderate penetration, Moderate ionising power, with a

      energy
electrons, mass
      'middle' values of charge and
mass, most stopped by a few
smaller mass and charge than the
alpha particle
Beta = 1/1837amu, mm of metals like aluminium
charge = -1

very high Very highly penetrating, The lowest ionising power of the
      frequency        smallest mass and charge, three, gamma radiation carries no
electromagnetic most stopped by a thick layer electric charge and has virtually no
radiation, mass of steel or concrete, but even mass, so not much of a 'punch'
Gamma
= 0, charge = 0 a few cm of dense lead when colliding with an atom
doesn't stop all of it!
Penetration of Ionizing Radiation

Alpha
Beta
Gamma, X-ray
Neutron
paper, aluminum, lead, water,
skin tin, heavy concrete,
light metals metals paraffin
Natural Radioactive series are FOUR

1. Uranium-Radium Series ( 4n+2 )

T = 4.5x109 Yrs

92 U238
----- 82 Pb 206
(8α +6β )
2. Thorium Series ( 4n )
T = 1.4x1010 Yrs
90Th ----- 82Pb208 (6α +4β )
232

3. Actinium series ( 4n+3 )

T = 7.1x108Yrs
92U ----- 82Pb207 (7α +4β )
235

4. Neptunium Series ( 4n+1 ) (Artificial Series )

T = 2.14x106 Yrs
93 Np237
----- 83 Bi 209
(7α +4β )
 Uranium series

92 U238 U234 [2.5 x 105 yr]

92
[4.5 x 4.76 MeV
6.14 MeV10 yr]
9
91 Pa 234

[1.2 m] 90Th
230
[8 x 10 yr]
4

Th234
90
[24.1 d] 4.68 MeV, 4.61 MeV
88Ra [1600 yr]
226

4.79 MeV, 4.61 MeV

86Rn [3.82 d]
222

5.49 MeV 84 Po 210

84 Po 214
[138 d]
84 Po 218
[ 3 m] [164 5.34 MeV
Bi214
7.68 MeV s] Bi210
6.80 MeV 83
[20
83
[5 d] 82Pb
206

82Pb
214 m] 82Pb
210

[27 m] [22 [Stable]

yr]
 Thorium series

Th232
90 Th228 [1.9 yr]
[1.4 x 1010 yr] 90

Ac228 5.42 MeV, 5.34 MeV

3.98 MeV 89
88Ra
224
[3.6 d] 
88 Ra228 [6.1 hr] 5.68 MeV, 5.45 MeV 
[5.7 yr]
Rn220 [54 s]
86
6.28 MeV
84 Po212
84Po [0.16 s]
216

6.77 MeV 83Bi

212
[0.3s]
[1 hr] 8.78 MeV (64 %)
82Pb
212

[10.6 (36 %) 82 Pb210

hr] Tl208
81
[3.1 m] [Stable]
 Nuclides and isotopes
• Electron and nucleon masses (note, a 12 C nucleus is defined to have u = 12.0000)
• Proton: mp = 1.007276 u
• Neutron: mn = 1.008665 u
• Electron: me = 0.000548580 u
• The atomic number Z is the number of protons in the nucleus. The neutron
number N is the number of neutrons in the nucleus. Therefore A = Z + N.
• A nuclide is a single nuclear species having specific values for both Z and N,
16
e.g. 8 O 16
O or 17
8 8 O
• The isotopes of an element have different numbers of neutrons, e.g.
Why do you think changing N does not change the element, but changing Z does?
• Like electrons, nucleons have ½-integer spin angular momentum, obeying
the same relation as before:S  s ( s  1)   34 

The z-component is itself a quantum number, as before: S z   2 

1
•
 Magnetic Moments
• Since every nucleon has its own spin, you can imagine that putting them all
into a nucleus would make an overall spin of the vector sum of the
individual ones, and the result could be pretty chaotic.
• In fact, it turns out that the magnitude of the total angular momentum J of
the nucleus is also neatly quantized as: J  j ( j  1) 
with quantized z-component
J z  m j  (m j  0, 1, 2,...,  j )
• When A is even, j is an integer, but when A is odd, j is a half-integer.
• Associated with the nuclear angular moment is a magnetic moment. Recall
the Bohr magneton for electrons:
 B 
e
2me
In the case of a nucleus,
the analogous quantity is the nuclear magneton: e
n 
2m p
• The z-component of the magnetic moment for the proton is:  2.7928n
sz proton
• Surprisingly, for a neutron it is non-zero:
 sz neutron
 1.9130 n
 Proton Spin Flips
• Recall that the potential energy associated with spin is U  μ  B   .z B
• Example : Proton spin flips: Protons are placed in a 2.30-T magnetic field that
points in the positive z-direction. (a) What is the energy difference between
states with the x-component of proton spin angular momentum parallel and
anti-parallel to the field? (b) A proton can make a transition from one of these
states to the other by emitting or absorbing a photon with the appropriate
energy. Find the frequency and wavelength of such a photon.
(a) When the spin angular momentum is parallel to B,
When it is anti-parallel, it is just 2.025 x 10-7 eV. The energy difference is just
twice this. U    B  (2.7928)(3.152  108 eV/T)(2.30 T)  2.025  107 eV
z

(b) The corresponding frequency and wavelength are:

E 4.05  107 eV 7
f   15
 9.79  10 Hz = 97.9 MHz
h 4.136  10 eV-s
c
   3.06 m
f
 NMR and MRI
• Nuclear magnetic resonance and MRI use strong magnetic fields to align the
nuclear spins, then flips the spins with radio waves. When the radio waves
cease, the spins flip spontaneously and emit radio photons that are measured.
Branching ratios & Partial decay:
Often different decay modes can
compete from same element.
222
) 87 Fr
%
0.06
α(
226 β- (83%)
89 Ac EC
(17
226
90 Th
%)

226
88 Ra
 Spontaneous fission:
In this process the nucleus splits
into two fragment nuclei of
roughly half the mass of the
parent. This process is only barely
detectable in competition with
the more prevalent alpha decay
for uranium, but for some of the
heaviest artificial nuclei, such as
fermium-256

256
100 Fm(T1  2.6h)
2

254
Cf (T1  60.5h)
98
2
 Summary of the Atom

Particle Mass (kg) Energy (MeV) Charge

Proton 1.672x10-27 938.2 +1

Neutron 1.675x10-27 939.2 0

Electron 9.11x10-31 0.511 -1

Radius of the nucleus r = ro A1/3, ro ~ 1.2 fermi

Density of nucleus ~ 1014 gm/cc
Size of atom ~ 1Ǻ