Trga 1105 Structural Materials & Processes

TRGA 1105 STRUCTURAL
MATERIALS & PROCESSES

READING ASSIGNMENT
JEPPESEN A&P TECHNICIAN GENERAL TEXTBOOK
Chapter 7 – Pages 7-1 to 7-36

A1. Define terms related to aircraft structural materials.
I. Terms & Definitions
A. Alloy - Is a physical mixture of two or more

elements.
1. Reasons why metals are alloyed;
a. Increase strength.
b. Increase corrosion resistance.
B. Hardness - It is the ability of a material to

resist penetration, cutting, abrasion, or
permanent distortion.

C. Brittleness - Is the property of a metal which
allows little bending or deformation without
shattering. It describes a materials tendency
to break or shatter when exposed to stress.
1. Examples of brittle metals are;
a. Cast iron
b. Cast aluminum
D. Malleability - A materials ability to be rolled,

hammered, or pressed into shape without
breaking or cracking. Opposite of Brittle.

E. Ductility - The property of a metal to be drawn,
bent or twisted into various shapes without
breaking
1. Example of extruded parts – tubing, round and
square, angle, hat channel, frames and rails.
extrudability- Is the ability of a material
To be drawn through a die.
EXTRUSION

Schematic of the direct, hot extrusion process

F. Elasticity - The property which enables a metal
to return to it’s original shape when the force
which causes the change of shape is removed.
1. Elastic Limit – Is the point beyond which the metal
does not return to it’s original shape after it’s
distorting force has been removed.
2. Yield Point – Is the point at which the material begins
to deform.
Examples; spring steel used on fixed landing gear and

aluminum aircraft skins on pressurized aircraft.
G. Toughness - The ability of a material to

withstand tearing or shearing and may be
stretched or otherwise deformed without
breaking, or the resistance of a material to
breaking after exceeding it’s elastic limits.

H. Tensile strength - The ability of a material to
resist being pulled apart or to resist forces
tending to stretch or lengthen the material.
1. Example; Aluminum Alloy Sheet Metal.
2. Measured in pounds per square inch (p.s.i.)
The ultimate tensile
strength (UTS) is the
maximum resistance to
fracture or failure.

I. Shear strength - The resistance of a material
to oppose a cutting force.
J. Bearing Strength - It is the force which

would tend to pull a rivet through the edge of
a sheet or to elongate a hole.
ENLONGATED HOLE
K. Bearing Strength refers to the “hole material”

not the fastener

K. Density - Is a materials weight per unit
volume
1. The standard to which all metals are compared
to is pure water.
2. Example - One cubic centimeter of pure water
weighs one gram which is the density of 1.
a. Aluminum has a density of 2.7, meaning a cubic
centimeter (cc) weighs 2.7 grams.
b. Titanium has a density of 4.7

L. Fusibility - The ability of a metal to become a
liquid by the application of heat.
1. Fused – means to heat two or more metals to

the molten state and allow them to flow
together to make a single part or piece. (aka
welding).

M. Conductivity - It is the property which enables
a metal to carry heat or electricity.
1. Thermal Conductivity – a measure of the ability
of a substance to conduct heat,
a. Thermal Expansion – Is the increase in volume of a
solid material as its temperature is increased, usually
expressed as a fractional change in dimensions per
unit temperature change.
2. Electrical Conductivity - Electrical conductivity is the
measure of the amount of electrical current a material can
carry.
IACS (International Annealed Copper Standard)
• Aluminum (volume) ~40% IACS
• Aluminum (weight) ~132% IACS
II. Metal Working Processes
A. After metal alloys are produced, they must be
formed into useful shapes.
1. Wrought materials - Are those formed by
physically working the metal into shape.

2. Cast materials - Are formed by pouring molten
metal into molds.

B. REVIEW--The three methods most
commonly used in mechanically working
metals into a desired shape are;
1. Hot-working - The process of forming metal when

it is in the molten or soft state. ( Examples; rolling
& forging )
2. Cold-working - Also known as strain hardening.

It is the working of the metal at room temperature.
Example; (Bending sheet metal)
3. Extruding - Is the process of forcing a metal

through a die. Hot but not molten state.
B1. Discuss ferrous metals and match them with alloying agents.
III. Ferrous Metals
A. Ferrous metals -Any alloy containing iron as

it’s chief constituent or base metal.
B. Steel - Is an iron alloyed with carbon. Steel

is a Ferrous metal.
B5. Discuss alloying agents, carbon steels, alloy steels, and the S.A.E.
class-
ification system used for steel
III. Ferrous Metals
C. SAE Classification of Steels ( SAE – Society of
Automotive Engineers)
1. 1xxx – Carbon - Carbon is added to steel to
increase hardness, strength, and toughness.
a. Low carbon - contains .10% - .30% carbon.
b. Medium carbon – contains .31% - .50% carbon.
c. High carbon – contains .51% - 1.05% carbon.
2. 2xxx - Nickel - Adds strength and hardness to steel
increases it’s yield strength. (Example; 2330)
3. 3xxx - Nickel Chromium - Used in the manufacturing of
aircraft hardware.
4. 4xxx – Molybdenum (Chrome-Moly) - Used in the
manufacturing of engine cylinders and the fabrication of
steel structural tubing. (4330)
class-
III. Ferrous Metals
ification system used for steel
C. SAE Classification of Steels ( SAE – Society of

Automotive Engineers)
5. 5xxx - Chromium - Used on steel to increase
wear resistance and strength.
6. 6xxx - Chromium Vanadium – Used to
manufacture extremely tough steel such as
wrenches and ball bearings.
7. 7xxx –Tungsten - Used for breaker contacts in
magnetos.
8. 8xxx – War Emergency Steel - Also known as
National emergency steel.
9. 9xxx – Silicon Manganese.
classification system used for steel.
III. Ferrous Metals

D. Identification
1. First digit - Predominant Alloy
2. Second digit - % of Predominant Alloy
3. Last two digits - one hundredth's of 1% (.00%)
carbon content.
Example; 2 3 3 0
.30% Carbon
3% Nickel
Predominant Alloy-
Nickel
III. Ferrous Metals
E. Stainless Steels (CRS)
1. Austenitic steels – Also known as the 200 and 300 series
stainless steels - contains large amounts of chromium and nickel.
It is non-magnetic.
a. Has a high coefficient of expansion therefore it is
more difficult to cut and form.
18 - 8
8% Nickel
18% Chromium
b. Stainless steel is used in the construction of aircraft engine

firewalls and other parts that need a high degree of
corrosion resistance and strength.
B2. Discuss nonferrous metals and match them with alloying agents.
IV. Nonferrous Metals
DEFINITION - Any metal that does not use iron

as it’s base or principle constituent.
Non-magnetic.
EXAMPLES; Aluminum, copper, titanium, monel

magnesium are some of the most
common nonferrous metals used in
aircraft construction.
B3. Select aluminum alloys by their alloy and temper designation number.
A. Aluminum & Aluminum Alloys

1. Extracted from a mineral known as bauxite.
2. Advantages
a. High strength to weight ratio
b. Ease of fabrication.
3. Aluminum is divided into two basic types

a. Wrought – shaped by rolling, drawing or
forging.
b. Cast – shaped by molds or die casting.

A. Aluminum & Aluminum Alloys (cont.)
4. Aluminum Alloy Designations ( 1st digit)
a. 1xxx – 99% pure aluminum - excellent corrosion
resistance & workability. (Example; 1100)
b. 2xxx – copper - equal to mild steel in strength.
(Examples; 2024, 2017, 2117)
c. 3xxx - manganese – good workability.
d. 4xxx – silicon – lowers melting temperature.
e. 5xxx – magnesium – good corrosion resistance
and weldability. (Examples; 5056 & 5052)
f. 6xxx – magnesium & silicon – good forming &
allows heat treatment. (Example; 6061)
g. 7xxx – zinc – very high strength – (Example;
7075)
h. 8xxx – other elements.
5. Aluminum Alloy Designations (2nd digit) # of
modifications.
6. Aluminum Alloy Designations (last two digits ) –
Specific Alloy.
EXAMPLE; 2 0 2 4 specific alloy
# of modifications
predominant alloy (copper)
Tensile Strengths
2024 2017 6061 7075
U.T.S. 27,000 psi 26,000 psi 18,000 psi 33,000 psi
U.T.S. T6 69,000 psi 45,000 psi 83,000 psi
U.T.S. T4 62,000 psi

7. Temper Designation
a. Follows alloy designation.
b. Letter indicates basic temper
c. Number indicates specific temper or hardness
d. Example; 2 1 1 7- O Degree of temper
specific alloy
Alloy modification
controls
predominant alloy

8. Alclad - Is a pure aluminum coating over a
tough aluminum alloy core.
a. 5 – 5 ½% of the metal thickness per side.
What is the thickness of ALCLAD on an
sheet of 2024 aluminum .020” thick?
.020x10% divided by 2 = .001”
A sheet of paper is .003” thick
ALCALD
ALLOY
ALCLAD
B4. Discuss magnesium, titanium, nickel, and copper, and
their alloys.
Read Information
Sheet A other
non-ferrous metals
V. PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TREATMENT
C. Lesson: TREATMENT PROCESSES.

1. Discuss treatment processes for steel.
2. Discuss heat treatment of metals. (Level 1) (App.
B,E,16)(Gen-E17)
3. Discuss commonly used systems for measuring the
hardness of steel.
4. § Perform basic heat-treating. (Level 1) (App. B,E,16)
C2. Discuss heat treatment of metals.
A. Description - It is a series of operations

involving the heating and cooling of the
metals in the solid state.
B. Purpose – To change a mechanical property

or a combination of mechanical properties,
so that the metal will be more useful,
serviceable, and safe for a definite purpose.

C. Internal Structure of Metals
1. Pure metals change very little when they are
heated and cooled.
2. Therefore, when alloyed, most metals will change
considerably when heated and cooled.
3. The two reasons metals are alloyed is to increase
their;
a. Strength
b. Corrosion resistance.

D. Heat Treating Equipment
1. Furnaces & Salt baths
a. Furnaces - Usually operate up to 2000 to
2500 degrees F..
b. Salt Baths - Salt baths can operate between
325 to 2450 degrees F..
The rate of heating occurs much faster in a

bath then in a furnace
Heating Ovens
Salt Bath
E. Heat Treating Procedure

1. Soaking (Time at Temperature) - During the
soaking period the temperature must be held
constant.
a. It’s during this time that the internal structure of the
metal is changing.
b. The soaking time depends on the type of material and
the size of the part
 As a general rule use 1 hour per 1” of cross-section.


E. Heat Treating Procedure (cont.)
2. Cooling (Quenching Mediums)
 The cooling methods include furnace cooling, still air
and liquids.
a. Furnace cooling – stepping down the temperature at a
controlled rate. (example - Annealing)
b. Still air – At room temperature. (example –Normalizing
steel
c. Liquids - oil, water, or brine. (example – Hardening)
The best quenching medium for steel is oil which has a
saybolt viscosity of 100 at 100 degrees F..
Saybolt Viscisometer
C1. Discuss treatment processes for steel.
VI. HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METALS

A. Considerations
1. Critical temperature - Is the point about which
the grain structure of the steel begins to
change.
2. The chemical composition determines the upper

critical point.
3. When steel is hardened it becomes brittle

therefore it must be tempered after the
hardening process to relieve internal stresses
and brittleness.

B. Heat Treatment Processes (ferrous material)
1. HARDENING (4130 – 15750F – 16250F)
a. The steel is heated above the upper critical point
or temperature.
b. Soaked for the required time.
c. Rapidly quenched in oil (carbon steels must be
cooled below 1,000 degrees F. in 1 sec. (alloys
have longer).
d. To temper the steel it should be removed from the
quench when it’s temperature is about 200
degrees F..
e. This procedure increases hardness & strength but
is less ductile and is more brittle. This is why steel
needs to be tempered after the hardening process.
 Tempering relieves internal stresses & brittleness
encountered during the hardening process

2. TEMPERING (4130 - 10500F – 125 Ksi)
a. The steel is heated below it’s critical point
b. It begins at 212 degrees F. and continues as
the temperature increases to the low critical
point.
c. Minimum soak time is 1 hr. and increased 1 hr.
for every inch of metal thickness.
d. Cool in still air.
e. Reduces the brittleness encountered during
the hardness process.

3. ANNEALING - Soft State (4130 – 15250F -
15750F)
a. The steel is heated above it’s upper critical
point
b. Soaking time 1 hr./ 1inch of metal thickness.
c. Slowly cool in furnace down to at least 900
degrees F. or lower.
d. Produces a fine grained, soft, ductile metal free
of internal stresses and strains. At this point
the metal is at it’s lowest strength.

4. NORMALIZING (4130 – 16000F -17000F)
a. Heat the metal above it’s upper critical point
b. Cooled in still air (room temperature)
c. Removes the internal stresses encountered
during heat treating or welding.

5. CASE HARDENING
a. Produces a hard wear resistant surface but leaves a
strong tough core.
b. Methods
 Carburizing - The steel is heated to about 1,700 degrees F
while in contact with charcoal (pack carburizing) and carbon
is absorbed in the metal surface.
» Low carbon. Low alloy steels are best suited for this
type of case hardening
 Nitriding - The steel is heated to about 1,000 degrees F.
while in contact with ammonia gas.
» When heated the ammonia is broke down into nitrogen
and hydrogen and absorbed into the material
(crankshafts & cylinder walls)
C2. Discuss heat treatment of (non ferrous) metals.
VII. HEAT TREATMENT OF NON FERROUS METALS
A. Aluminum Alloys
1. Heat treatment of aluminum alloys is achieved
two ways;
a. Solution heat treatment (T4)
b. Precipitation heat treatment - Also known as artificial

Aging. (T6)
A. Aluminum Alloys (cont..)

2. There are two classes of heat-treatable aluminum
alloys
a. Natural Aging Alloys -Those which obtain full
strength at room temperature in 4 to 5 days.
(2017, 2117, 2024)
b. Artificial Aging Alloys - Require precipitation

heat treatment in which the alloy is heated to a
temperature of 250 – 375 degrees F. (+/- 5
degrees) for 8 to 96 hours and cooled to room
temperature. (6053, 6061, 7075).
B. Heat Treating Procedure for Aluminum Alloy
1. Solution Heat Treatment (T4) – 3 Step Procedure
(Natural Aging Alloys - 2017, 2117, 2024 obtain full
strength 4-5 days)
a. Heating - The material is heated to a specified
temperature (825 to 980 degrees F.).
b. Soaking –This is the amount of time the aluminum
alloy is held at a specified temperature ranging
anywhere from 10 minutes to 12 hours depending on
the metal thickness.
c. Quenching - The material is quenched one of three
ways;
 Cold water – sheet material, extrusions, and tubing.
 Hot water - Large Sections
 Spray Quenching – A high velocity water spray used on
most alloys formed from clad and large sections

FLOW CHART
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
SOLUTION HEAT TREATMENT
T4
HEAT SOAK
HEAT ALUM. 2024 SOAK ALUM. 2024 ALLOY QUENCH
ALLOY TO 9100 – 9300 F. 9100 – 9300 F. ALUMINUM
& 2017 AND 2117 ALUM. & 2017 AND 2117 ALUM. ALLOY – COLD
ALLOY TO 9300 – 9500 F. ALLOY 9300 – 9500 F. FOR WATER
DESIGNATED PERIOD
NATURAL AGING
4 DAYS
T4
2017, 2117, & 2024

2. Precipitation Heat Treatment (Artificial Aging ) – Four Step
Procedure (Artificial Aging Alloys – 6053, 6061 & 7075)
a. Heating -Same as for solution heat treatment (T4)
b. Soaking – Same as for solution heat treatment (T4)
c. Quenching – Same as for solution heat treatment (T4)
d. Artificial Aging Alloys - Require precipitation heat treatment in

which the alloy is heated to a temperature of 250 - 375 degrees F.
(+/- 5 degrees) for 8 to 96 hours and cooled to room temperature.
(6053, 6061, 7075).
HEATING SOAKING QUENCH

HEAT ALUM. 6053 OR HEAT ALUM. 6053 OR ALUMINUM
6061 ALLOY TO 9600 – 6061 ALLOY 9600 – 9800 F. ALLOY – COLD
9800 F. FOR DESIG, TIME. WATER
ALUMINUM ALLOYS ARTIFICIAL

AGING - T6
FLOW CHART HEAT 6053 OR
PRECIPITATION HEAT TREATMENT 6061 TO 3150-3250
F. – 18 Hrs.
T-6
HEAT 7075 TO
3450 – 3550F –
FOR 6-10 Hrs.
COOL AT
ROOM
TEMPERATURE
T6
THE LAG TIME BETWEEN THE HEATING

MEDIUM AND THE QUENCHING MEDIUM
MUST BE HELD TO 10 SECONDS OR LESS
OR THE ALLOYS CORROSION RESISTANCE
MAY BE DESTROYED.
C. Tensile strength
Ultimate Tensile Strength
2024 2017 6061 7075

U.T.S. 27,000 psi 26,000 psi 18,000 psi 33,000 psi
U.T.S. T4 68,000 psi 62,000 psi 35,000 psi
U.T.S. T6 45,000 psi 83,000 psi

D. Annealing Aluminum Alloys
1. Bare aluminum alloys may be reheat treated
many times without harmful effects.
2. Annealing of aluminum alloys is done by heating
the alloy and soaking for a designated period of
time with controlled cooling (step-down).
a. Temper. designation - O
b. Condition - Aluminum Alloy is in it’s softest
state.
3. Annealing Cladded aluminum is limited from one
to three times.
D.Annealing Aluminum Alloys
READ INFORMATION SHEET A & TEXT

FOR HEAT TREATING OTHER
NON FERROUS METALS SUCH AS
MAGNESIUM & TITANIUM.
C3. Discuss commonly used systems for measuring the hardness of steel.
VIII. HARDNESS TESTING
A. Determines the results of heat treatment as

well as the state of the prior treatment.
B. All hardness testers test the materials ability
to resist penetration.
C. Hardness can be related to the tensile
strength values of a given metal
1. The harder the material, the higher the tensile
strength.

D. Types of hardness testers
1. Brinell Tester - Uses a spherical penetrator (ball)
and the diameter of the impression is measured.
0 1 2 3
BRINELL TESTER

2. Rockwell Tester – Uses a diamond and ball
penetrators and the depth of the penetration is
measured.
Very hard steel (e.g. a good knife blade) HRC 55 to

HRC 62 or so
Axes, chisels, etc. HRC 40 - 45
ROCKWELL TESTER

3. Barcol Tester - This is a portable unit used to test such
metals as aluminum, copper, brass & other relatively
soft metals.

4. Webster Hardness tester

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TRGA 1105 STRUCTURAL

MATERIALS & PROCESSES

JEPPESEN A&P TECHNICIAN GENERAL TEXTBOOK

Chapter 7 – Pages 7-1 to 7-36

I. Terms & Definitions

A. Alloy - Is a physical mixture of two or more

B. Hardness - It is the ability of a material to

I. Terms & Definitions

D. Malleability - A materials ability to be rolled,

I. Terms & Definitions

I. Terms & Definitions

Examples; spring steel used on fixed landing gear and

I. Terms & Definitions

G. Toughness - The ability of a material to

I. Terms & Definitions

I. Terms & Definitions

J. Bearing Strength - It is the force which

K. Bearing Strength refers to the “hole material”

I. Terms & Definitions

I. Terms & Definitions

1. Fused – means to heat two or more metals to

I. Terms & Definitions

II. Metal Working Processes

II. Metal Working Processes

1. Hot-working - The process of forming metal when

2. Cold-working - Also known as strain hardening.

3. Extruding - Is the process of forcing a metal

III. Ferrous Metals

A. Ferrous metals -Any alloy containing iron as

B. Steel - Is an iron alloyed with carbon. Steel

C. SAE Classification of Steels ( SAE – Society of

III. Ferrous Metals

b. Stainless steel is used in the construction of aircraft engine

IV. Nonferrous Metals

DEFINITION - Any metal that does not use iron

EXAMPLES; Aluminum, copper, titanium, monel

IV. Nonferrous Metals

A. Aluminum & Aluminum Alloys

3. Aluminum is divided into two basic types

IV. Nonferrous Metals

IV. Nonferrous Metals

A. Aluminum & Aluminum Alloys (cont.)

IV. Nonferrous Metals

C. Lesson: TREATMENT PROCESSES.

V. PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TREATMENT

A. Description - It is a series of operations

B. Purpose – To change a mechanical property

V. PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TREATMENT

V. PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TREATMENT

The rate of heating occurs much faster in a

V. PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TREATMENT

E. Heat Treating Procedure

 As a general rule use 1 hour per 1” of cross-section.

V. PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TREATMENT

VI. HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METALS

2. The chemical composition determines the upper

3. When steel is hardened it becomes brittle

VI. HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METALS

VI. HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METALS

VI. HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METALS

VI. HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METALS

VI. HEAT TREATMENT OF FERROUS METALS