LE A R N I N G AN D

MEMORY
 LEARNING

A persisting change in human performance or performance potential brought about as

a result of the learner’s interaction with the environment.

As per Wittig in (1977) and Hilgard (1975), they view it as a relatively permanent
change in behavior that occurs as a result of experience.
 THEORIES OF LEARNING
• ANIMAL STUDIES HAVE BEEN VERY USEFUL IN THE DEVELOPMENT
OF SOME OF THE LEARNING THEORIES. HOWEVER, HUMAN BEINGS
ARE ALSO USED AS SUBJECTS OF EXPERIMENTS.

• ITIS IMPORTANT NOT ONLY AS A THEORETICAL BASIS FOR

TEACHING BUT AS EXPLANATIONS FOR DAY-TO-DAY LEARNING
EVENTS.
 2 CLASSIFICATION OF CONTEMPORARY
LEARNING THEORIES
ASSOCIATION THEORY NON-ASSOCIATION
• EMPHASIZE THE THEORY
ESTABLISHMENT AND • FOCUSES ON THE COGNITIVE
STRENGTHENING OF STRUCTURES OF MAN AS A
RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN THE BASIS FOR LEARNING.
STIMULUS (S) AND THE
RESPONSE (R).
 ASSOCIATION OR STIMULUS RESPONSE
THEORIES

•THORNDIKE’S CONNECTIONISM
•CLASSICAL OR RESPONDENT CONDITIONING
•INSTRUMENTAL/OPERANT CONDITIONING
 THORNDIKE’S
CONNECTIONISM

• EDWARD LEE C. THORNDIKE IS AN

AMERICAN PSYCHOLOGIST WHO WAS ONE
OF THE FIRST INVESTIGATORS WHO CAME
OUT WITH AN ASSOCIATION THEORY OF
LEARNING.

• THORNDIKE ASSOCIATED SENSE

IMPRESSIONS AND IMPULSES WITH
ACTION.
-LAW OF
READINESS

-LAW OF
EXERCISE

-LAW OF EFFECT
 LAW OF READINESS

• INDIVIDUALS LEARN BEST WHEN THEY ARE PHYSICALLY,

MENTALLY, AND EMOTIONALLY READY TO LEARN AND DO
NOT LEARN WELL IF THEY SEE NO REASON FOR
LEARNING.
 LAW OF EXERCISE
• STIMULUS-RESPONSE (SR) CONNECTIONS ARE STRENGTHENED BY
PRACTICE OR REPETITION. THOSE THINGS TAUGHT CORRECTLY AND MOST
OFTEN REPEATED ARE BEST REMEMBERED.
TWO PARTS OF LAW OF EXERCISE
1. LAW OF USE – CONNECTIONS GROW STRONGER WHEN USED.
2. LAW OF DISUSE – CONNECTIONS GROW WEAKER WHEN NOT USED.
 LAW OF EFFECT

• STATESTHAT THE STIMULUS-RESPONSE (SR) BONDS OR

CONNECTIONS ARE STRENGTHENED BY REWARDS OR
SATISFACTION. IT IS BASED ON THE EMOTIONAL
REACTION OF THE STUDENT.
•THORNDIKE PLACED A HUNGRY
CAT IN A PUZZLE BOX. FOOD WAS
PLACED OUTSIDE OF THE BOX FAR
ENOUGH FOR THE CAT TO REACH.

•THE CAT’S EFFORT TO OPEN THE

BOX USED TRIAL AND ERROR.

•THORNDIKE SAYS THAT THIS IS

ALSO THE SAME PROCESS HUMANS
USES. SEARCHING FOR THE
CORRECT SOLUTION TO PROBLEMS,
MAN USES TRIAL-AND-ERROR
PROCESS.
 CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
• IT WAS INTRODUCED BY A RUSSIAN PHYSIOLOGIST
NAMED IVAN P. PAVLOV.

• IT INVOLVES THE FORMATION OF AN ASSOCIATION

BETWEEN A CONDITIONED STIMULUS AND A
RESPONSE THROUGH REPEATED PRESENTATION OF
CONDITIONED STIMULUS TOGETHER WITH AN
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS.
S R
5 VARIABLES OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
• NEUTRAL STIMULUS (NS)
• UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS (US)
• CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS)
• UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE (UR)
• CONDITIONED RESPONSE (CR)
1. Neutral Stimulus (NS) – Any stimulus that produces no conditioned
response prior to learning.
2. Unconditioned Stimulus (US) – it has the ability to elicit response without
previous training.
3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – initially does not elicit a response but comes
to do so by being paired with unconditioned stimulus.
4. Unconditioned Response (UR) – original response to an unconditioned
stimulus
5. Conditioned Response (CR) – learned response to a conditioned stimulus.
STAGE 1: BEFORE
CONDITIONING

• IN THIS STAGE, THE

UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS
(UCS) PRODUCES AN
UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE
(UCR) IN AN ORGANISM.

US UR
 STAGE 2: DURING
CONDITIONING
• DURING THIS STAGE, A
NEUTRAL STIMULUS IS
ASSOCIATED WITH THE
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS AT
WHICH POINT IT NOW
BECOMES KNOWN AS THE
CONDITIONED STIMULUS (CS)

NEUTRAL STIMULUS +
Neutral Stimulus Unconditioned Stimulus
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS =
CONDITIONED STIMULUS
STAGE 3: AFTER
CONDITIONING
• ONCEYOU’VE LEARNED TO ASSOCIATE THE
CONDITIONED STIMULUS WITH THE
UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE, IT BECOMES THE
CONDITIONED RESPONSE.

CONDITIONED STIMULUS = CONDITIONED

RESPONSE
 4 BASIC LAWS OF CLASSICAL
CONDITIONING
1. LAW OF EXCITATION - THIS LAW APPLIES WHEN A PREVIOUSLY
NEUTRAL STIMULI ACQUIRES THE PROPERTY OF ELICITING THE
CONDITIONED RESPONSE
2. LAW OF INTERNAL INHIBITION – THE CONDITIONED RESPONSE
WILL NOT BE ELICITED IF THE CONDITIONED STIMULUS IS NOT
SIMULTANEOUSLY PRESENTED WITH THE UNCONDITIONED
STIMULUS.
3. LAW OF EXTERNAL INHIBITION - EXCITATORY OR
INHIBITORY PROCESSES IN CONDITIONING CAN OCCUR
WHEN NEW AND DISTRACTING STIMULI ARE PRESENTED
AND THEN REMOVED.
4. LAW OF EXTINCTION – IT OCCURS WHEN THE
CONDITIONED RESPONSE IS NO LONGER ELICITED BY THE
CONDITIONED STIMULUS BECAUSE IT CONSTANTLY
PRESENTED ALONE.
 OTHER CONCEPTS
• STIMULUS GENERALIZATION - CONDITIONED RESPONSE OCCUR
NOT JUST TO CONDITIONED STIMULUS DURING TRAINING BUT TO
SIMILAR STIMULI TOO.

• SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY - THE REAPPEARANCE OF PREVIOUSLY

EXTINGUISHED RESPONSE AFTER A CONSIDERABLE TIME HAS
LAPSED WITHOUT EXPOSURE TO THE CONDITIONED STIMULUS.

• HIGHER ORDER CONDITIONING - THE PROCESS BY WHICH A

CONDITIONED STIMULUS MAY BECOME AN UNCONDITIONED
STIMULUS.
 OPERANT CONDITIONING
• BASED ON THE CONCEPT AND IDEA OF BURRHUS
FREDERICK SKINNER.

•A LEARNING WHERE FREQUENCY OF A BEHAVIOUR

DEPENDS ON THE CONSEQUENCE THAT FOLLOWS THAT
BEHAVIOUR.

• THE FREQUENCY WILL INCREASE IF THE CONSEQUENCE

IS REINFORCING TO THE SUBJECT.

• THE FREQUENCY WILL DECREASE IF THE CONSEQUENCE

IS NOT REINFORCING OR PUNISHING TO THE SUBJECT
 THE SKINNER
BOX
•A HUNGRY RAT IN A BOX
WITH A SMALL LEVER OR
BAR. THE BAR IS ATTACHED
TO A FOOD MAGAZINE SO
EVERY TIME THE BAR IS
BEING PRESSED, IT WILL
RELEASE FOOD.
 PRINCIPLE OF OPERANT
CONDITIONING
• REINFORCEMENT - ANY CONSEQUENCE THAT INCREASES THE
LIKELIHOOD OF THE BEHAVIOR IT FOLLOWS.
(POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT AND NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT)

• PUNISHMENT - ANY CONSEQUENCE THAT DECREASES THE

LIKELIHOOD OF THE BEHAVIOR IT FOLLOWS
(POSITIVE PUNISHMENT AND NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT)
• POSITIVE
REINFORCEMENT - STRENGTHENS A RESPONSE BY
PRESENTING A STIMULUS THAT YOU LIKE AFTER A RESPONSE.

• NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT - STRENGTHENS A RESPONSE BY

REDUCING OR REMOVING AN AVERSIVE (DISLIKED) STIMULUS.

• POSITIVE PUNISHMENT - SOMETHING THAT IS ADDED TO THE

ENVIRONMENT YOU DO NOT LIKE.

• NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT - SOMETHING IS TAKEN AWAY THAT

YOU DO LIKE.
   Reinforcing/Desirable Stimulus Aversive/UnDesirable
Stimulus
   

Stimulus is presented Positive (+) Positive (+) Punishment

or added to Reinforcement
Add something you DO LIKE.
environment…
Behavior Increases
Stimulus is removed Negative (-) Punishment
or taken away from TAKES AWAY something you DO
LIKE.
environment… Behavior Decreases
Add something you DO NOT LIKE.
Behavior Decreases
Negative (-)
Reinforcement
TAKES AWAY something you DO
NOT LIKE.
Behavior Increases

a. Terminal behaviour – aimed at or the goal of operant conditioning

b. Satiation - the process whereby the effectiveness of a reinforcer decreases with
repeated presentation.
 SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT
• CONTINUOUS SCHEDULE – THE REINFORCEMENT FOLLOWS EVERY
CORRECT RESPONSE.

• RATIOSCHEDULE – REINFORCERS ARE GIVEN ONLY AFTER A

PARTICULAR NUMBER OF RESPONSES HAVE BEEN MADE
A. FIXED-RATIO SCHEDULE - BEHAVIOR IS REINFORCED ONLY
AFTER THE BEHAVIOR OCCURS A SPECIFIED NUMBER OF TIMES
B. VARIABLE-RATIO SCHEDULE – WHEN THE REINFORCEMENT IS
GIVEN AFTER A VARYING NUMBER OF RESPONSES
• INTERVAL SCHEDULE – IS DEPENDENT ON TIME
A. FIXED-INTERVAL SCHEDULE – REINFORCEMENT IS GIVEN AFTER
A FIXED TIME OR DURATION.
B. VARIABLE-INTERVAL SCHEDULE – REINFORCERS ARE
ADMINISTERED INVARIABLY WITHOUT ANY FIXED TIME.
•SHAPING - THE PROCESS WHEREBY THE
RESPONSES ARE SUCCESSIVELY CONDITIONED
GRADUALLY UNTIL A DESIRED TERMINAL
BEHAVIOR IS ACHIEVED.
•EXTINCTION - THE PROCESS OF NO LONGER
PROVIDING THE REINFORCEMENT THAT HAS BEEN
MAINTAINING A BEHAVIOR.
PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING
• 1.PRINCIPLE OF GENERALIZATION – TENDENCY TO ATTRIBUTE
LEARNED INFORMATION OR SKILL TO A WHOLE CLASS OF SIMILAR
INFORMATION OR SKILL.

• 2.PRINCIPLE OF DISCRIMINATIVE LEARNING – ALLOWS A PERSON TO

LEARN DIFFERENT RESPONSES TO BE USED IN SITUATIONS THAT
ARE SIMILAR TO OTHER SITUATIONS ALREADY ENCOUNTERED.
• 3.PRINCIPLE OF REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULE – RETENTION OF LEARNED
SKILLS WITHOUT THE NEED FOR FURTHER COACHING OR REWARDS.
A. CONTINUOUS REWARDS – IN THE BEGINNING OF TRAINING, A PERSON
IS REWARDED EVERY TIME THE PROPER RESPONSE IS ELICITED.
B. INTERMITTENT REWARDS – PROVIDING PRAISE OR REWARD AT
REGULAR INTERVAL.
C. NO REWARD – SHOULD BE GIVEN ONCE THE SKILL HAS ALREADY BEEN
ACQUIRED.

• 4. PRINCIPLE OF IMITATION AND IDENTIFICATION

– LEARNING DESIRED
BEHAVIORS BY OBSERVING OTHERS WHO DELIBERATELY DEMONSTRATE
THE RESPONSES.
SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
• SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY
CONSIDERS HOW BOTH
ENVIRONMENTAL AND COGNITIVE
FACTORS INTERACT TO INFLUENCE
HUMAN LEARNING AND BEHAVIOR.

• POSITS THAT PEOPLE LEARN FROM

ONE ANOTHER, VIA OBSERVATION,
IMITATION, AND MODELING.
American-Canadian Psychologist who
emphasized observational learning in
which people learn through observing
others.
 2 CONCEPTS OF SOCIAL LEARNING
THEORY

1.MODELING - FOCUSES ON LEARNING BY

OBSERVING OTHERS
2.IMITATION - IT INVOLVES COPYING THE BEHAVIOR
OF THE MODEL ONE IS EXPOSED TO.
 4 SUBPROCESSES
1.ATTENTION - IN ORDER TO LEARN, THE LEARNER NEEDS TO PAY
ATTENTION.
2.RETENTION - HOW WELL THE BEHAVIOR IS REMEMBERED EVEN AFTER A
PERIOD OF TIME.
3.REPRODUCTION - THE TIME TO PERFORM THE BEHAVIOR YOU OBSERVED.
4.MOTIVATION - YOU NEED TO BE MOTIVATED ENOUGH TO IMITATE THE
BEHAVIOR THAT WAS MODELED.
 COGNITIVE
LEARNING
• FOCUSES ON THE COGNITIVE
STRUCTURES RATHER THAN ON
STIMULUS-RESPONSE
CONNECTIONS AS THE CRUCIAL
FACTORS IN LEARNING.
• 2 PERSONS WHO CONTRIBUTED TO
THE COGNITIVE LEARNING:
WOLFGANG KOHLER (INSIGHT
THEORY OF LEARNING) AND
EDWARD C. TOLMAN (SIGN
LEARNING THEORY).
 INSIGHT LEARNING
• INSIGHT MEANS GRASPING OF THE SOLUTION, A FLASH OF UNDERSTANDING, WITHOUT ANY
PROCESS OF TRIAL AND ERROR.

5 CHARACTERISTICS OF INSIGHT LEARNING

1.THE GREATER THE INTELLIGENCE THE GREATER THE POSSIBILITIES OF ACHIEVING INSIGHT.
2.THE STRONGER THE EXPERIENCES OF THE ORGANISM, THE GREATER THE POSSIBILITY IT
WILL HAVE OF ACHIEVING INSIGHT.
3.INSIGHT LEARNING CAN BE TESTES IN THE LABORATORY.
4.CAN BE APPLIED TO NEW SITUATIONS.
5.EVEN IF INSIGHT LEARNING IS NOT THE RESULT OF TRIAL-AND-ERROR, TRIAL AND ERROR IS
PRESENT IN INSIGHT LEARNING.
 SIGN LEARNING
• SIGN LEARNING IS DEFINED AS AN ACQUIRED EXPECTATION THAT ONE STIMULUS
WILL BE FOLLOWED BY ANOTHER IN A PARTICULAR CONTEXT.
PRINCIPLES OF SIGN LEARNING
1.LEARNING IS ALWAYS PURPOSIVE AND GOAL-DIRECTED.
2.LEARNING OFTEN INVOLVES THE USE OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS TO ACHIEVE
A GOAL (E.G., MEANS-ENDS-ANALYSIS).
3.ORGANISMS WILL SELECT THE SHORTEST OR EASIEST PATH TO ACHIEVE A GOAL.
 TRANSFER OF LEARNING
• THE USE OF PREVIOUSLY ACQUIRED KNOWLEDGE AND SKILLS IN NEW LEARNING
OR PROBLEM-SOLVING SITUATIONS.
3 KINDS OF LEARNING TRANSFER
1.POSITIVE TRANSFER – OCCURS WHEN THE LEARNING OF ONE TASK FACILITATES
THE LEARNING OF ANOTHER.
2.NEGATIVE TRANSFER - WHEN LEARNING OF ONE TASK MAKES THE LEARNING OF
ANOTHER TASK HARDER
3.NEUTRAL TRANSFER - WHEN LEARNING OF ONE ACTIVITY NEITHER FACILITATES
OR HINDERS THE LEARNING OF ANOTHER TASK, IT IS A CASE OF NEUTRAL
TRANSFER.
MEM O R Y A N D F OR GE TT I N G
 MEMORY
• TOTALITY OF EXPERIENCES THAT CAN BE REMEMBERED.
• MEMORY IS BOTH A RESULT OF AND AN INFLUENCE ON PERCEPTION, ATTENTION,
AND LEARNING.
3 PHASES OF MEMORY
1.ENCODING - THE PROCESS OF CONVERTING INFORMATION INTO SPECIFIC FORMS
FOR PROCESSING.
2. STORAGE OF INFORMATION FOR SUBSEQUENT RECOVERY OR RETRIEVAL.
3.RETRIEVAL - IT IS AWARE OF THE CONSCIOUS OR UNCONSCIOUS OF INFORMATION
FROM LONG-TERM MEMORY.
 3 STEPS OF MEMORY
• SENSORY-INFORMATION STORAGE - BRIEFLY PRESERVES A RELATIVELY
EXACT REPLICA OF SENSORY INFORMATION
ICONIC STORAGE – WHEN SENSORY INFORMATION IS RECEIVED ONLY
THROUGH THE EYES.

• SHORT-TERM MEMORY - TEMPORARILY STORES SENSORY INFORMATION

AND DECIDES WHETHER TO SEND IT ON TO LONG-TERM MEMORY (LTM)
STM CAN HOLD 5-9 ITEMS FOR ABOUT 30 SECONDS BEFORE THEY ARE
FORGOTTEN.
• REHEARSAL PROCESS
1.CONCENTRATE ON THE PAGE NUMBER AND DO NOT BE DISTRACTED
BY OTHER STIMULI
2.REPEAT THE NUMBER OVER AND OVER TO YOURSELF UNTIL YOU
FIX IT IN YOUR BRAIN

• CHUNKING PROCESS - PROCESS OF TAKING INDIVIDUAL PIECES OF

INFORMATION AND GROUPING THEM INTO LARGER UNITS
• LONG-TERM MEMORY - RELATIVELY PERMANENT MEMORY STORAGE
WITH A VIRTUALLY LIMITLESS CAPACITY
- IT HAS NO LIMIT AND THERE IS NO EXPLANATION OF HOW
LONG-TERM MEMORY OPERATES, BUT IT APPEARS TO DEPEND UPON
CODING (ORGANIZATION OF THE INFORMATION) AND ON ASSOCIATIONS.

2 TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY

1.EPISODIC MEMORY – A RECORD OF SOME PERSONAL EXPERIENCES
2.SEMANTIC MEMORY – MEMORY FOR CONCEPTS AND RULES
 EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT MEMORY

• EXPLICITMEMORY - INFORMATION THAT YOU HAVE TO

CONSCIOUSLY WORK TO REMEMBER.
EX. TRYING TO REMEMBER A NAME OR DATE

• IMPLICIT
MEMORY - INFORMATION THAT YOU REMEMBER
UNCONSCIOUSLY AND EFFORTLESSLY.
EX. SINGING YOUR FAVORITE SONG AND RIDING A BIKE
 UNUSUAL FORMS OF MEMORY

• EIDETIC IMAGERY OR PHOTOGRAPHIC MEMORY - THE ABILITY TO

RECALL A PAST SCENE IN DETAIL WITH GREAT ACCURACY – JUST
LIKE A PHOTOGRAPH.

• MNEMONIST OR A PROFESSIONAL MEMORIZER - REFERS TO AN

INDIVIDUAL WITH THE ABILITY TO REMEMBER AND RECALL
UNUSUALLY LONG LISTS OF DATA.
 IMPROVING MEMORY
• 1. CHUNKING – GROUPING ITEMS TOGETHER WHICH CAN BE REMEMBERED ONLY
AS ONE BIT OF INFORMATION

• 2. MNEMONIC DEVICES - A MEMORY TECHNIQUE THAT CAN HELP INCREASE YOUR

ABILITY TO RECALL AND RETAIN INFORMATION

• 3. OVERLEARNING – THE PROCESS OF PRACTICING THE INFORMATION OVER AND

OVER AGAIN UNTIL IT BECOMES FIRMLY FIXED IN OUR BRAIN

• 4.ORGANIZATION OF TEXT MATERIALS – TO ORGANIZE ANY MATERIAL IN

MEMORY, ONE SHOULD FIRST UNDERSTAND THE STRUCTURE OF THE MATERIAL

• 5. ORGANIZATION OF LECTURE NOTES – IT IS BETTER REMEMBERED IS THE MAIN

POINTS ARE JOTTED DOWN
 MEASURING MEMORY
• RECALL – THE PERSON IS ASKED TO DESCRIBE A PAST IN HIS OWN WORDS
• RECOGNITION – CHOICES ARE GIVEN FOR A PERSON TO PICK ONE HE
RECOGNIZES AS THE CORRECT RESPONSE.
2 KINDS OR RECALL SITUATIONS
1. FREE RECALL - PARTICIPANTS STUDY A LIST OF ITEMS ON EACH TRIAL, AND
THEN ARE PROMPTED TO RECALL THE ITEMS IN ANY ORDER.
2. SERIAL RECALL - THE PARTICIPANTS ARE REQUIRED TO RECALL WHAT IS IN THE
LIST ACCORDINGLY.
 THEORIES OF FORGETTING
• TRACE DECAY THEORY
-TRACE THEORY ASSUMES THAT LEARNING LEAVES A MARK (TRACE) ON THE
BRAIN.
-WITH THE PASSAGE OF TIME, THIS TRACE DECAYS WHEN IT IS NOT REHEARSED.

• INTERFERENCE THEORY
- FORGETTING OCCURS BECAUSE MEMORIES INTERFERE WITH AND DISRUPT ONE
ANOTHER.
 AMNESIA
• AMNESIA – A LOSS OF MEMORY, EITHER PARTIAL OR TOTAL, FOR THE PAST
EVENTS IN A PERSON’S LIFE.

• 4 DIFFERENT CAUSES OF AMNESIA:

-PSYCHOLOGICAL AMNESIA -ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA
-RETROGRADE AMNESIA -BIOCHEMICAL CAUSES

• IT MAY ALSO BE CAUSE BY CEREBRAL SHOCK SUCH AS MAY OCCUR IN A HEAD

INJURY, A CONVULSION, OR SEVERE LOSS OF BLOOD, AND DRUGS BY
INTERFERING WITH BIO-CHEMICAL PROCESSES IN THE STORAGE OF
INFORMATION.
1. PSYCHOLOGICAL AMNESIA - THE PERSON SUDDENLY REPRESSES ALMOST
EVERYTHING ABOUT SELF. IT INVOLVES FUNCTIONAL INABILITY TO RECALL HIS
PERSONAL PAST.

• MOTIVATED FORGETTING - THE IDEA THAT PEOPLE CAN BLOCK OUT, OR FORGET,
UPSETTING OR TRAUMATIC MEMORIES, BECAUSE THERE IS A MOTIVATION TO DO
SO.

2. RETROGRADE AMNESIA – THE LOSS OF INFORMATION THAT WAS ACQUIRED

BEFORE THE ONSET OF AMNESIA.
- IT DEVELOPS AFTER A TRAUMATIC BRAIN INJURY THAT A PERSON MAY
BE UNABLE TO REMEMBER WHAT HAPPENED ONLY A FEW SECONDS BEFORE OR
MANY YEARS PRIOR TO THAT INJURY.
3. ANTEROGRADE AMNESIA – THE INABILITY TO REMEMBER NEW
INFORMATION FOR ANY LENGTH.

4. BIOCHEMICAL CAUSES - EXCESSIVE CONSUMPTION OF ALCOHOL,

MARIJUANA, AND SOME ANTIBIOTICS CAN PREVENT YOUR BRAIN
FROM CODING INFORMATION FOR STORING IN YOUR LONG-TERM
MEMORY.
 CONDITIONS AFFECTING EFFECTIVE
LEARNING
• MOTIVATION – OUR MOTIVES URGE US TO APPROACH OR WITHDRAW FROM A
PARTICULAR GOAL OR ACTIVITY.
- WE LEARN BEST WHAT WILL MEET OUR NEEDS AND WANTS.

• MENTAL SET – STUDY MUST BE PURPOSEFUL AND DIRECTED TOWARD SPECIFIC

GOALS.
- WITH AN ACTIVE INTENT TO LEARN, YOU ARE MUCH MORE LIKELY TO
LEARN MORE EFFECTIVELY THAN IF YOU MERELY GIVE PASSIVE ATTENTION.
• EMOTION – EMOTIONS CAN FACILITATE OR BLOCK RETENTION.
- THE EFFECTIVENESS OF LEARNING IS ALSO AFFECTED BY
ONE’S ATTITUDE TOWARD WHAT IS BEING LEARNED.

• REHEARSAL – IT IS POSSIBLE MENTALLY AS THE INDIVIDUAL GOES

THROUGH THE PHYSICAL MOVEMENTS OF A PROCESS IN HIS MIND
REVIEW – VIEWING AGAIN MATERIAL THAT HAS BEEN LEARNED
WILL STRENGTHEN THE MEMORY
RECITATION – IT CAN GO WITH CLASSROOM RECITATION OR
PRACTICE ACTIVE RECITATION TO YOURSELF DURING INDEPENDENT
STUDY.
DISTRIBUTED AND MASSED PRACTICE

THE BREAK UP OF LEARNING TIME INTO SEVERAL SHORT PERIODS WITH

INTERVALS IN BETWEEN.

• DISTRIBUTED PRACTICE – THE GRADUAL LEARNING THAT RESULTS FROM THE

SPACING PERSISTS FOR A LONGER TIME

• MASSEDPRACTICE – WHEN THE MATERIAL IS EASY AND SHORT, IT IS

ADVANTAGEOUS TO LEARN THE ENTIRE SEQUENCE AT ONE TIME.
 DRUGS AND STIMULANTS
• STIMULANTS CAN ARTIFICIALLY INCREASE THE BODY’S ACTIVITY
LEVEL FOR A LIMITED TIME BY INCREASING THE BODY EXCITANTS,
SUCH AS ADRENALINE AND NORADRENALINE, WHICH IN TURN
INCREASE MEMORY.

• CAFFEINEACTS AS A CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM STIMULANT.

WHEN IT REACHES YOUR BRAIN, THE MOST NOTICEABLE EFFECT IS
ALERTNESS.
• SODIUM NITRITE – A SUBSTANCE THAT HAS THE OPPOSITE
EFFECT TO CAFFEINE
- WHEN TAKEN IN LOW CONCENTRATIONS, IT
SERVES TO BLOCK MEMORY.
- IT IS A MEAT PRESERVATIVE WHICH IS USED IN
HOTDOGS, AND COLD CUTS.
• ACCORDING TO RESEARCH, EATING THREE OR FOUR
HOTDOGS COULD GIVE JUST THE RIGHT AMOUNT OF
CHEMICAL FOR A SHORT PERIOD OF TIME TO REDUCE
LEARNING.
• FORTUNATELY, YOUNG PEOPLE ARE ALSO FOND OF SODA
POP AND IF TAKEN WITH HOTDOGS, IT MIGHT JUST
COUNTERBALANCE THE EFFECT OF THE HOTDOGS.
 SKILLS FOR LEARNING
1.READING SKILLS, BOTH COMPREHENSION AND IMPROVED SPEED
2.LISTENING SKILLS
3.SKILLS IN TAKING NOTES
4.LIBRARY REFERENCE
5.SKILLS IN COMMUNICATION, BOTH VERBAL AND WRITTEN

DEFICIENCIES IN ANY OF THE ABOVE WILL MOST CERTAINLY HINDER, IF NOT BLOCK,
LEARNING.
 THANK YOU
F OR L I S TE N I N G