Unit 67 Mech Science LO1 Lessons

BTEC Level 3 Extended Diploma & Diploma
Aeronautical Engineering
Unit 67 – Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical
Science
1. Be able to apply mechanical principles to determine forces and stresses in static
aircraft engineering systems Forces and stress: force (F = ma = mg),
mass/weight relationship (W = mg) static pressure (P = L/A ) vector
representation of forces and couples; simply supported beams (weight of
beam, concentrated load, uniformly distributed load, reactions); stress (direct,
shear)
Mechanical principles: principle of moments and conditions for static

equilibrium; expressions/formulae e.g. for direct stress, strain, shear stress and
strain, elastic modulus (tensile, shear), torsion, stress in components subject to
single and double shear, factor of safety
Static aircraft engineering systems: e.g. stresses in aircraft structures (such as

tensile, shear, torsion, bending and hoop stresses in fuselage, wings,
undercarriage), aircraft fuselage as a simply supported beam (centre of gravity
(CG), datum, CG limits), aircraft fastened joints (such as riveted, bolted, hinge
pins)
Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical
Science
Lesson 1 & 2 Objectives
• Define force
• Define weight
• Define a couple
• State the principles of moments
• State conditions for static equilibrium
• Solve problems on simple supported beams
Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

LO1: Be able to apply mechanical principles to determine forces and stresses in static aircraft engineering systems
Define Force
A FORCE is a push or pull upon an object resulting from the object's interaction with another object. Whenever there is an
interaction between two objects, there is a force upon each of the objects. When the interaction ceases, the two objects no
longer experience the force. For simplicity sake, all forces (interactions) between objects can be placed into two broad
categories:
• Contact forces, and

• Forces resulting from action-at-a-distance
Force is a quantity that is measured using the standard metric unit known as the Newton. A Newton is abbreviated by an "N."
To say "10.0 N" means 10.0 Newton of force. One Newton is the amount of force required to give a 1kg mass an acceleration
of 1 m/s/s. (1 ms-2)
A force is a vector quantity. A vector quantity is a quantity that has both magnitude and direction.

P1: Define force, weight and couple, state the principle of moments and conditions for static equilibrium and solve two problems on simply supported
beams, one that has three point loads and one that has three point loads and a uniformly distributed load [IE1, IE4]
Define Force
Contact forces are those types of forces that result when the two interacting objects are perceived to be physically contacting each other. Examples of contact forces include:
a)Frictional forces
b)
Tensional forces
c)Normal forces
d)
Air resistance forces
e)Applied forces
Action-at-a-distance forces are those types of forces that result even when the two interacting objects are not in physical contact with each other, yet are able to exert a push or pull despite their physical separation. Examples of action-at-a-distance forces are:
f)Gravitational forces. The sun and planets exert a gravitational pull on each other despite their large spatial separation. Even when your feet leave the earth and you are no longer in physical contact with the earth, there is a gravitational pull between you and
the Earth.
g)Electric forces. The protons in the nucleus of an atom and the electrons outside the nucleus experience an electrical pull towards each other despite their small spatial separation.
h)
Magnetic forces. Two magnets can exert a magnetic pull on each other even when separated by a distance of a few centimetres.
When delivering learning outcome 1, learners need to be made aware of the relationship between force, mass, weight and pressure, as well as an understanding of how to represent forces as vectors and
resolve vector systems. Emphasis should also be placed on the relationship between the loading of a simply supported beam and that of the aircraft fuselage, where the supports may represent the aircraft
wheels. This theory can then be applied to aircraft weight and balance. The application of the principles concerned with stress and strain can be applied to examples involving aircraft structural loading and in
particular to riveted and bolted joints. The use of laboratory beam apparatus and tensile testing of riveted joints would be a very good way to enhance understanding.

Define Force
Types of Force & Symbol Description of Force
Applied Force An applied force is a force that is applied to an object by a person or another object. If a
Fapp person is pushing a desk across the room, then there is an applied force acting upon the
object. The applied force is the force exerted on the desk by the person.
The force of gravity is the force with which the earth, moon, or other massively large
Gravity Force object attracts another object towards itself. By definition, this is the weight of the
(also known as Weight) object. All objects upon earth experience a force of gravity that is directed "downward"
Fgrav towards the centre of the earth. The force of gravity on earth is always equal to the
weight of the object as found by the equation:
Fgrav = m * g where g = 9.81N/kg (on Earth) and m = mass (in kg)
The normal force is the support force exerted upon an object that is in contact with
another stable object. For example, if a book is resting upon a surface, then the surface
Normal Force is exerting an upward force upon the book in order to support the weight of the book.
Fnorm On occasions, a normal force is exerted horizontally between two objects that are in
contact with each other. For instance, if a person leans against a wall, the wall pushes
horizontally on the person.
The tension force is the force that is transmitted through a string, rope, cable or wire
Tension Force when it is pulled tight by forces acting from opposite ends. The tension force is directed
Ftens along the length of the wire and pulls equally on the objects on the opposite ends of the
wire.

Define Force
Types of Force & Symbol Description of Force
The friction force is the force exerted by a surface as an object moves across it or makes
an effort to move across it. There are at least two types of friction force, kinetic and
static friction. Though it is not always the case, the friction force often opposes the
Friction Force motion of an object. For example, if a book slides across the surface of a desk, then the
Ffrict desk exerts a friction force in the opposite direction of its motion. Friction results from
the two surfaces being pressed together closely, causing intermolecular attractive forces
between molecules of different surfaces. As such, friction depends upon the nature of
the two surfaces and upon the degree to which they are pressed together.
The air resistance is a special type of frictional force that acts upon objects as they travel
through the air. The force of air resistance is often observed to oppose the motion of an
Air Resistance Force object. This force will frequently be neglected due to its negligible magnitude (and due
Fair to the fact that it is mathematically difficult to predict its value). It is most noticeable for
objects that travel at high speeds (e.g., a skydiver or a downhill skier) or for objects with
large surface areas.
The spring force is the force exerted by a compressed or stretched spring upon any
object that is attached to it. An object that compresses or stretches a spring is always
Spring Force acted upon by a force that restores the object to its rest or equilibrium position. For
Fspring most springs (specifically, for those that are said to obey "Hooke's Law"), the magnitude
of the force is directly proportional to the amount of stretch or compression of the
spring.

Define Force
A force is a vector quantity. A vector quantity is a quantity that has both magnitude and
direction. To fully describe the force acting upon an object, you must describe both the
magnitude (size or numerical value) and the direction. Thus, 10N (Newton) is not a full
description of the force acting upon an object. In contrast, 10N (Newton), downward is a
complete description of the force acting upon an object; both the magnitude (10 Newton)
and the direction (downward) are given.
Because a force is a vector that has a direction, it is common to represent forces using
diagrams in which a force is represented by an arrow. Such vector diagrams were
introduced and are used throughout the study of physics. The size of the arrow is reflective
of the magnitude of the force and the direction of the arrow reveals the direction that the
force is acting. (Such diagrams are known as free-body diagrams and are discussed)
Furthermore, because forces are vectors, the effect of an individual force upon an object is
often cancelled by the effect of another force. For example, the effect of a 20N (Newton)
upward force acting upon a book is cancelled by the effect of a 20N (Newton) downward
force acting upon the book. In such instances, it is said that the two individual forces
balance each other; there would be no unbalanced force acting upon the book.

Define Weight
The force of gravity acting upon an object is sometimes referred to as the weight of the object. The mass
of an object refers to the amount of matter that is contained by the object; the weight of an object is the
force of gravity acting upon that object. Mass is related to how much stuff is there and weight is related to
the pull of the Earth (or any other planet) upon that stuff. The mass of an object (measured in kg) will be
the same no matter where in the universe that object is located. Mass is never altered by location, the pull
of gravity, speed or even the existence of other forces. For example, a 2kg object will have a mass of 2kg
whether it is located on Earth, the moon, or Jupiter; its mass will be 2 kg whether it is moving or not and
its mass will be 2kg whether it is being pushed upon or not.
On the other hand, the weight of an object (measured in Newton) will vary according to where in the
universe the object is. Weight depends upon which planet is exerting the force and the distance the object
is from the planet. Weight, being equivalent to the force of gravity, is dependent upon the value of (g) the
gravitational field strength. On earth's surface g is 9.81 N/kg (often approximated as 10 N/kg). On the
moon's surface, g is 1.7 N/kg. Furthermore, the (g) value is inversely proportional to the distance from the
centre of the planet. So if we were to measure (g) at a distance of 400 km above the earth's surface, then
we would find the (g) value to be less than 9.81 N/kg.
Define Couple
Every couple has its moment! This quotation may help you
remember something about the turning effect of a pair of forces.
If two equal and opposite forces whose lines of action are not
the same act on a body then they produce only a turning effect
on the body such an effect is called a couple and the size of this
couple is called the moment of the couple or torque. (f x d)
A couple is composed of two forces that:

a) are equal
b) are anti-parallel (parallel but in opposite directions)
c) do not pass through the same point

Define Couple (Aircraft)
Typically, the forces created during aircraft
operation are arranged as illustrated below.
They do not act through a common point.
The centre of pressure lies a short distance
aft of the centre of gravity. Since lift and
weight do not act in the same line, they
make up what is known as a couple. This
couple has a turning effect on the aircraft,
pitching the nose downwards.
Clockwise or anti-clockwise. An object

rotates when two parallel forces act on the
same object but in opposite directions

Define Couple

Principles of Moments
The turning effect of a force is known as the moment. It is the

product of the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance
from the line of action of the force to the pivot or point where
the object will turn.
When undoing a nut fastened to a screw by hand one realises that

the amount of force required is a lot greater than when undoing
the same nut using a spanner. The spanner increases the distance
between the fulcrum and the line of action of the force, thus for
the same force a greater moment is obtained.

The moment (or torque) of a force about a turning point is the
force multiplied by the perpendicular distance to the force from
the turning point.
Moments are measured in newton metres (Nm).

Moment = F d
F = the force in newtons (N)
d = perpendicular distance in metres (m)
Example; A 10N force acts at a perpendicular distance of 0.50m

from the turning point. What is the moment of the force?
Moment = Fd
= 10 x 0.50
= 5.0 Nm

Principle of Moments:
” When an object is in equilibrium the sum of the anticlockwise
moments about a turning point must be equal to the sum of the
clockwise moments.”
sum of anticlockwise moments = sum clockwise moments
Example;
F1 x d1 = F2 x d2

F1 x d1 = (F2 x d2) + (F3 x d3)

Static Equilibrium
Static equilibrium meaning it is not moving.
1.
From simple physics:
1. The sum of the forces in the vertical direction F1 + F2 = R1 + R2
equals zero (i.e. the total downward forces
equal the total upward forces).
2. The sum of the anticlockwise moments about

2.
any point [i.e. POINT A] is equal and opposite
to the sum of the clockwise moments about
that point. POINT A
Taking Moments from POINT A

CWM = ACWM
(F1 x d1) + (F2 x d2) = (R2 x Length)

Simply Supported Loaded Beams
A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has
pinned support at one end and roller support at the other
end. Depending on the load applied, it undergoes
shearing and bending. It is the one of the simplest
structural elements in existence.
A uniform distributed load (UDL) is a distributed load

which has a constant value such as 1kN/m. To change a
UDL to a point force you need to know the total force, and
the location it acts through.

Determine the reactions at the ends of a simply supported loaded beam as shown
below:

Let, RA and RB be the reactions at the left support A and right support
B respectively.
Resolving the forces vertically, we get

RA + RB = 50 + 25 = 75 --- (i)
Considering the anticlockwise moments and the clockwise moments,

taking moments all the forces about the left end
(25 × 25) + (50 × 75) = (RB × 100)
625 + 3750 = (RB × 100)
4375 = (RB × 100) [divide both side by 100]
RB = 4375 / 100
RB = 43.75 kN --- (ii)
Substituting the value of RB in the equation (i), we get

RA = 75 – 43.75
RA = 31.25 kN

below:

Let, R1 and R2 be the reactions at the left support (1) and right support
(2) respectively.

R1 + R2 = 20 + 30 + (5 × 10 UDL)
R1 + R2 = 100 kN --- (i)

taking moments and all the forces about the left end R1
(20 × 3) + (30 × 7) + (50 × 5 UDL) = (R2 × 10)
60 + 210 + 250 = (R2 × 10)
520 = (R2 × 10) [divide both sides by 10]
R2 = 520/10
R2 = 52 kN --- (ii)
Substituting the value of R2 in the equation (i), we get

R1 = 100 – 52
R1 = 48 kN
below:

Let, RA and RD be the reactions at the left support A and right support D
respectively.

RA + RD = (2 × 5 UDL) + 10 = 20 --- (i)
Considering the anticlockwise moments and the clockwise moments, taking

moments all the forces about the left end ‘A’, we get
(10 x 2.5 UDL) + (10 x 8) = (RD × 10)
25 + 80 = (RD × 10)
105 = (RD × 10) [divide both sides by 10]
RD = 105/10
RD = 10.5 kN --- (ii)
Substituting the value of RD in the equation (i), we get

RA = 20 – 10.5
RA = 9.5 kN

below:

Let, RA and RB be the reactions at the left support A and right support B
respectively.

RA + RB = 2650 + (770 × 3.4 UDL) = 5268 --- (i)

taking moments all the forces about the left end ‘A’, we get
(2618 x 4.4 UDL) + (2650 x 8.8) = (RB × 11.5)
11519.2 + 23320 = (RB × 11.5)
34839.2 = (RB × 11.5) [divide both sides by 11.5]
RB = 34839.2/11.5
RB = 3029.5 N --- (ii)
Substituting the value of RB in the equation (i), we get

RA = 5268 – 3029.5
RA = 2238.5 N

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destinations
name them:
Science
Lesson 3 Objectives
• Define centre of gravity
• Calculate location of centre of gravity
• Calculate change in location of centre of gravity

Centre of Gravity (CG)
The centre of gravity of an airplane is the point at which it would
balance if it were suspended in air or the point at which most of
its mass is focused. Its distance from the datum is found by
dividing the total moment by the total weight of the airplane.
The centre of gravity can be thought of as the point at which all of
the aircraft's mass is concentrated, or the "heaviest" part of the
airplane.
In a typical light general aviation aircraft, the centre of gravity is

located just aft, or toward the rear, of the firewall, or just aft of
where the engine is. The engine, avionics, pilot, and passengers
are the heaviest components on an airplane, and the location of
the heaviest items on the airplane will be the approximate
location of the centre of gravity.
On larger aircraft, the CG may vary wildly with fuel locations and
loading considerations, making the loading of the
aircraft imperative to a successful flight.

P3: For an aircraft treated as a simply supported beam in static equilibrium, determine the centre of gravity from a datum, given the reactions and distances
of the aircraft wheels from this datum [IE1, IE4]
The board has three masses,
and the datum is located 50 Item Mass Arm Moment CG
centimetres to the left of the Mass A 100 kg 0.5 m 50 kgm
CG of weight A.
Mass B 100 kg 0.9 m 90 kgm
Determine the CG by making Mass C 200 kg 1.50 m 300 kgm
a chart like the one here
400 kg 440 kgm 1.10 m
CG = Total moment
Total mass
CG = 440 kgm
400 kg
CG = 1.10 metres behind the datum

Centre of Gravity

Item Mass Arm Moment CG CG = Total moment

Total mass
Main Wheels 3,540 kg 2.455 m 869,070 kgm
CG = 1,179,057 kgm
Nose Wheels 2,322 kg 1.335 m 309,987 kgm 5,862 kg
5,862 kg 1,179,057 kgm 2.011 m CG = 2.011 metres behind the datum

Determine the moment of each item by multiplying it’s weight by it’s arm.
Then determine the total weight and the sum of the moments.
Divide the total moment by the total weight to determine the “Centre of Gravity”.
Item Mass Arm Moment CG

Airplane (BEW) 850 kg 0.92 m 782.00 kgm
Front Seats 136 kg 0.94 m 127.85 kgm
Fuel 239.5 kg 1.18 m 282.60 kgm
Rear Seats 79 kg 1.88 m 148.50 kgm
Baggage A 45 kg 2.46 m 110.70 kgm
Baggage B 22.5 kg 2.95 m 66.38 kgm
Total 1,372 kg 1,518.03 kgm 1.106 m

(3,025 lb) (43.5 Inches)

1 400 kg 3.0 m 1,200 kgm
2 2,000 kg 5.0 m 10,000 kgm
3 7,200 kg 13.5 m 97,200 kgm
4 3,000 kg 13.0 m 39,000 kgm
5 28,000 kg 14.0 m 392,000 kgm
6 1,500 kg 24.0 m 36,000 kgm
7 800 kg 28.0 m 22,400 kgm
8 3,800 kg 14.5 m 55,100 kgm
Total 46,700 kg 652,900 kgm 13.98 m
CG from datum = Total Mass moment (kgm) CG from datum = 652,900 kgm = 13.98 m
Total mass (kg) 46,700 kg

Centre of Gravity (CG) Example 1
CG from datum = Total Mass moment (kgm)

Total mass (kg)
Weight A kg m kgm
Weight B kg m kgm
Total kg kgm m

Centre of Gravity (CG) Example 1
CG from datum = Total Mass moment (kgm)

Total mass (kg)
Weight A kg m kgm
Weight B kg m kgm
Total kg kgm m

Centre of Gravity

Science
Lesson 4 Objectives
• Define Direct Stress and Strain
• Define Youngs Modulus of Elasticity
• Calculate Direct Stress and Strain

Engineering Notation

P2: Define direct and shear stress and strain and elastic modulus, and solve three problems that involve finding direct and
shear stress and strain and modulus [IE1, IE4]
Area of a Circle
A = πr2 where r is the radius of the circle.

Since the diameter is twice the radius,
r=d
2
when you square both sides, you get r2 = d2 = r2 = d2

22 4
plug this back in the circle's area expression
A = πr2 = πd2
4

Define Direct Stress
Forces acting on a material cause a change in dimension
and the material is said to be in a state of stress. Direct
stresses are stresses that are normal to the plane on
which they act. For tensile and compressive forces, the
cross sectional area is that which is at right angles to the
direction of the force.
Stress is the ratio of the applied force F to cross sectional

area A of the material.
The symbol used for tensile and compressive stress is σ

(Greek letter sigma).
The unit of stress is the Pascal, Pa

σ=F
A
Define Direct Stress
When a force is applied to an elastic body, the body
deforms. The way in which the body deforms depends
upon the type of force applied to it. A compression force
makes the body shorter. A tensile force makes the body
bigger.
Tensile and compressive forces are called DIRECT FORCES.

Stress is the force per unit area upon which it acts.
Stress = σ = Force N or Pascals

Area m2 NOTE ON UNITS: The fundamental unit of stress is 1 N/m2 and this is
called a Pascal.
The symbol σ is called SIGMA
This is a small quantity in most fields of engineering so we use the
multiples kPa, Mpa and Gpa. Areas may be calculated in mm 2 and
units of stress in N/mm2
Since 1 N/mm2 converts to 1,000,000 N/mm2 then it follows that

N/mm2 is the same as Mpa
Direct Stress Example 1
A rectangular bar having a cross-sectional area of 75 mm 2 has a tensile force of 15 kN applied to it.
Determine the stress in the bar.
Cross-sectional area A = 75 mm 2 = 75 x 10-6 m2

And force F = 15 kN = 15 x 103 N
Stress in bar, σ = F = 15 x 103 N

A 75 x 10-6 m2
σ = 0.2 x 109 Pa = 200 MPa
Also try:
Stress in bar, σ = F = 15 x 103 N
A 75 mm2
σ = 200 MPa
(Remember 1 N/mm2 = 1 Pascal)

Define Direct Strain
Direct stress brings about a change in dimensions in the direction of the stress. This deformation is
direct strain. For a tensile or compressive force, strain is the ratio of the change of length to the
original length.
The symbol used for strain is ε (Greek letter epsilon).
For a material of length L metres which changes in length by an amount x metres when subjected
to stress.
Strain is dimension-less and is often expressed as a ratio or percentage.
ε=x
L

Direct Strain Example 1
A bar 1.60 m long contracts axially by 0.1 mm when a compressive load is applied to it.
Determine the strain and the percentage strain.
ε=x
L
Strain ε = contraction = 0.1 mm

original length 1.60 x 103 mm
ε = 0.1 = 0.0000625
1600
Percentage strain = 0.0000625 x 100 = 0.00625%

Direct Stress & Strain Example 1
A metal wire is 2.5 mm diameter and 2 m long. A force of 12 N is applied to it and it stretches 0.3 mm.
Assume the material is elastic. Determine the following.
i. The stress in the wire σ.

ii. The strain in the wire ε.
A = πd2 = π x 2.52 = 4.909 mm2

4 4
σ = F = 12 N = 2.44 N/mm2
A 4.909 mm2
Answer 2.44 MPa
ε = x = 0.3 mm = 0.00015
L 2000 mm
Direct Stress & Strain Example 2
1) A steel bar is 10 mm diameter and 2 m long. It is stretched with a force of 20 kN and extends 0.2 mm.
Calculate the following. (254.6 Mpa & 0.0001)

2) A rod is 0.5 m long and 5 mm diameter. It is stretched 0.006 mm by a force of 3 kN

Calculate the following. (152.8 Mpa & 0.000012)


Youngs Modulus of Elasticity
When a force is applied to an elastic substance, the substance will be strained. It will elongate in the direction of the force.
However, if the force is removed, it will return to its original length. This is called elasticity. However, depending on the
material, there is a limit to the magnitude of force that can be used. If it is exceeded, it will cause the substance to not be
able to return to its original length upon removal of the force. This limit is called yielding. According to Hook's law, stress is
proportional to strain. Strain is the ratio of elongation of the substance to its original length. The ratio of stress to strain of
an elastic substance is the modulus of elasticity.
The relationship is as follows: E = σ
ε
E = the modulus of elasticity of the material, which is also measured in N/m 2 or Pa,
Sigma = stress caused by an external force, which is measured in N/m 2 or Pa,
Epsilon = strain caused by the stress and isn't measured in units.
This means that materials with a high modulus of elasticity will require more stress to elongate the same amount of strain as
compared to a material with a lower modulus of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity is material dependent.
For example, the modulus of elasticity of steel is about 200 GPa and the modulus of elasticity of aluminium is 69 GPa.

Youngs Modulus of Elasticity Example
A circular bar is 2.5 m long and has a diameter of 60 mm. When subjected to a compressive load of 30 kN it
shortens by 0.20 mm. Determine Young’s modulus of elasticity for the material of the bar.

Hooke's Law
According to Hooke’s law:
Within the limit of proportionality, the extension of
material is proportional to the applied force.
It follows: Within the limit of proportionality of a material,
the strain produced is directly proportional to the stress
producing it.
Youngs Modulus of Elasticity is given the symbol E. The

value of E may be determined from the gradient of the
straight line portion of the stress/strain graph. The
dimensions of E are Pascals Pa (the same as stress, since
strain is dimension-less).

Ultimate Tensile Stress
If a material is stretched until it breaks, the tensile stress
has reached the absolute limit and this stress level is called
the ultimate tensile stress.

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Name the 10 most honest nations.

Corrupt Countries, where
does the UK rank?
Science
Lesson 5 Objectives
• Define Shear Stress and Strain
• Define Modulus of Rigidity
• Calculate Shear Stress and Strain

Shear Stress
Shear is most commonly developed when two pieces of material are bolted or riveted together. When force is applied
such that the two plates tend to slide over each other, shear stress is applied to the bolt. If the force becomes greater
than the shear strength of the bolt, it will be cut as with a pair of shears.
If the applied load consists of two equal and opposite parallel forces which do not share the same line of action, then
there will be a tendency for one part of the body to slide over or shear from the other part. The force acting over the
cross sectional area of the body is the Shear Stress. The Shear Stress is the ratio of the applied force F to cross sectional
area A which is parallel to the direction of the force. The symbol used for shear stress is τ (Greek letter tau).
The unit of stress is the Pascal, Pa
τ=F
A

Shear Strain
Shear strain is the ratio of deformation to original dimensions. In the case of shear strain, it is the amount of deformation
perpendicular to a given line rather than parallel to it. In engineering, shear strain is defined as the tangent of the angle, and
is equal to the length of deformation at its maximum divided by the perpendicular length in the plane of force application.
For a shear force, strain is denoted by the symbol γ (Greek letter gamma).
Strain is dimension-less and is often expressed as a ratio
γ=x
h

Shear Stress & Strain Example 1
A rivet of diameter 3.3 mm is subjected to a shear force of 2.5 kN, the force causes a lateral
deformation of 0.1 mm over a height of 15 mm
A = πd2 = π x 3.32 = 8.55 mm2

4 4
τ = F = 2,500 N = 292.4 N/mm2

A 8.55 mm2
Answer 292.4 MPa
γ = x = 0.1 mm = 0.006
h 15 mm
Modulus of Rigidity (Shear Modulus)
The modulus of rigidity, also known as shear modulus, is defined as a material property with a value equal to the shear stress
divided by the shear strain. Similar to the modulus of elasticity, shear modulus is another form of the generalized Hook's Law.
The general formula of shear modulus is written as shown:
G= τ
γ
Where τ is the shear stress in a given member, which has the unit of force divided by area (N/m 2);
γ is the shear strain which does not have a unit (strain is the change of length divided by the original length);
and G is the shear modulus or the modulus of rigidity.
The modulus of rigidity depends on the material. For example, the modulus of rigidity for cast steel is approximately 78 GPa,
and the modulus of rigidity of aluminium is approximately 28 GPa.

Shear Stress & Strain Example 1
An engine anti-vibration mounting is mounted vertically and subjected to a 500 N load when the engine is
fitted. The dimensions of the mount are 50 mm long x 50 mm wide. The thickness of the mounting is 20 mm,
calculate the following:
I. The shear stress in the mounting A = 0.05 m x 0.05 m = 0.0025 m2

II. The shear strain if the deflection is 4 mm
III. The modulus of rigidity of the material τ = F = 500 N = 200,000 N/m2
A 0.0025 m 2
Answer 200 kPa
γ = x = 4 mm = 0.2
h 20 mm
G = τ = 200,000 Pa = 1 MPa
γ 0.2

Ultimate Shear Stress
If a material is sheared beyond a certain limit it becomes
permanently distorted and does not spring all the way
back to its original shape. The elastic limit has been
exceeded. If the material is stressed to the limit so that it
parts into two ( e.g. a guillotine or punch), the ultimate
limit has been reached. The ultimate shear stress is τu and
this value is used to calculate the force needed by shears
and punches

Science
Lesson 6 Objectives
• Define and determine factor of safety
• Define and determine the shear stress in the rivets of a single shear sheet metal joint
• Define and determine the shear stress in the rivets of a double shear sheet metal joint
• Preparation for assignment 1 static aircraft engineering systems

Direct Stress &
Strain
A helicopter winch cable is used to lift a load of 25 kN. If the winch cable is 5 metres in length and
has a diameter of 12 mm and extends by 5.3 mm when the load is lifted.
Calculate the following:
i. The tensile stress in the cable

ii. The strain in the cable
iii. The modulus of elasticity

Direct Stress &
Strain
A helicopter winch cable is used to lift a load of 25 kN. If the winch cable is 5 metres in length and
has a diameter of 12 mm and extends by 5.3 mm when the load is lifted.
Calculate the following:
i. The tensile stress in the cable

ii. The strain in the cable
iii. The modulus of elasticity
A = πd2 = π x 12 mm2 = 113.10 mm2 iii) E = σ 221.04 x 106 Pa = 207357.71 MPa

4 4 ε 0.001066
i) σ = F = 25 x 103 N = 221.04 N/mm2 Answer 207 GPa

A 113.10 mm2 Answer 221.04 MPa
ii) ε = x 5.33 mm = Answer 0.001066

L 5000 mm

Factor of Safety
Engineering components should be designed so that the working stress which they are likely to encounter is well below the
ultimate stress at which failure occurs.
A factor of safety of at least 2 is generally applied for static structures. This ensures that the working stress will be no more
than half of that at which failure occurs. Much lower factors of safety are applied in aircraft design where weight is premium
and with some of the major components it is likely that failure will eventually occur due to metal fatigue. These are
rigorously tested at the prototype stage to predict their working life and replaced periodically in service well before this
period has elapsed.
The factor safety (FOS) is the ratio of the maximum stress allowed and the actual stress
FOS = Ultimate Tensile Stress (Maximum Allowable) FOS = Ultimate Shear Stress (Maximum Allowable)
Actual Tensile Stress (Working Stress σ) Actual Shear Stress (Working Stress τ)

M1: Determine the shear stress in the rivets of a typical aircraft sheet metal riveted joint in both single and double shear and, from given appropriate values, find the
factor of safety in operation in each case
Factor of Safety Example 1
A Steel tie rod is 20 mm diameter. It carries a load of 40 kN. Finding cross-sectional area of strut.
Given that the maximum allowable stress is 460 MPa,
calculate the safety factor. A = πd2 = π x 0.022 = 0.000314 m2 (314.2 x 10-6)
4 4
σ = F = 40,000 N = 127.38 x 106 N/m2

A 0.000314 m2
Answer 127.38 MPa
Finding the factor of safety.
FOS = Ultimate Tensile Stress (Maximum Allowable)

Actual Tensile Stress (Working Stress σ)
FOS = Ultimate Tensile Stress (Maximum Allowable) FOS = 460 x 106 (460 Mpa)
Actual Tensile Stress (Working Stress σ) 127.38 x 106 (127.38 Mpa)
FOS = 3.61
Factor of Safety Example 2
A strut of diameter 25 mm and length 2 m carries an axial load of 20kN. (a) Finding cross-sectional area of strut.
The ultimate compressive stress of the material is 250 Mpa. Find:
A = πd2 = π x 252 = 490.9 mm2
(a) the compressive stress in the material, 4 4
(b) the factor of safety in operation.
σ = F = 20,000 N = 40.7 N/mm2
A 490.9 mm2
Answer 40.7 MPa
(b) Finding factor of safety in operation.
FOS = Ultimate Tensile Stress (Maximum Allowable)

Actual Tensile Stress (Working Stress σ)
FOS = Ultimate Tensile Stress (Maximum Allowable) FOS = 250 x 106 (350 Mpa)
Actual Tensile Stress (Working Stress σ) 40.7 x 106 (40.7 Mpa)
FOS = 6.25
Rivets Head
A rivet is a round bar consisting of:
• head
• shank.
Shank
Rivets are inserted into the plate. The head is reaction riveted and the
tail is formed using a rivet block.
Tail
Types of Rivetted
Joints
Lap joints
Butt joints

Fastening In Single Shear
The total sheared cross-sectional area of the fastenings is: Rivet Diameter = d
A = n π d2
F 4
F
τ = F = F__
FF F A n π d2
4
τ = 4F
Number of
Rivets = n n π d2

Fastening In Double
Shear
In joints where the plates must be butted together, connecting plates are used above and below the joint.
There is then a tendency to shear the rivets in two places and they are said to be in double shear.
The total sheared cross-sectional area of the fastenings is:
Rivet Diameter = d
A = 2n π d2
4
Number of
Rivets = n τ = F = F__
A 2n π d2
F 4
F τ = 2F
n π d2

Single Shear Stress
Riveted lap joints and joints employing screwed fastenings are often The shear stress in the fastenings will be.
subjected to shearing forces. Tensile forces may also be present and these
are very necessary to hold the joint surfaces tightly together. It is very likely τ = F = F__
however that the external loads will have a shearing effect and it is A n π d2
assumed that this will be carried entirely by the fastenings. The tendency is 4
to shear the fastenings at the joint interface and this is known as single τ = 4F
shear. n π d2
In design problems you will probably know

the safe working stress and the
recommended rivet or bolt diameter for the
thickness of the materials being joined. The
task will then be to calculate the number of
fastenings required and to decide on their
spacing. Transposing the above formula gives:
The total sheared cross-sectional area of the fastenings is:
n = 4F
A= nπd 2
τ π d2
4

Single Shear Stress Example
A lap joint is required to join plates using rivets of diameter 6 mm. FOS = Ultimate Shear Stress (Maximum Allowable)
The shearing force to be carried by the joint is 12 kN and the shear Actual Shear Stress (Working Stress τ)
strength of the rivet material is 300 Mpa. If a factor of safety is to
apply, find the number of rivets required for the joint. Finding allowable shear stress in rivets.
(rearrange the above formula)
τ= USS (Maximum Allowable) = 300 Mpa

Factor of safety 8
τ = 37.5 Mpa
Finding number of rivets required.
n = 4F
τ π d2
n= 4 x 12,000 N
37500000 x π x (0.006)2
N = 11.3 or use 12 rivets

Double Shear Stress
The shear stress in the fastenings will be:
τ = F = F__
A 2n π d2
4
τ = 2F
n π d2
If you compare this with the equation for single shear you
will note that for the same load, diameter and number of
rivets, the shear stress for double shear is half the value of
The total sheared cross-sectional area of the fastenings is single shear. A joint in double shear can therefore carry
double that for single shear. twice as much load as the equivalent joint in single shear.
If it is required to find the number of rivets required, the
A = 2n π d2 above equation can be transposed to give:
4
n = 2F
τ π d2
Double Shear Stress Example
Two aluminium plates are to be joined by means of a double strap riveted butt joint. The joint is required to support a
load of 10kN and the total number of rivets is 12. The rivet material has a shear strength of 200 Mpa and a factor of
safety of 6 is to apply. Determine the required diameter of the rivets.
Finding required rivet diameter.
τ= 2F
n π d2
d2 = 2F
nπτ
Finding allowable shear stress in
rivets. where n = 12 = 6 rivets
2
τ = Shear strength = 200
Factor of safety 6
d = 5.64 x 10-3 m or 5.64 mm
τ = 33.3 MPa i.e. use 6.0 mm rivets

Single & Double Shear Stress
Example
An aircraft skin panel has been riveted in place. One end is a lap
joint in single shear and the other end is a butt strap in double
shear. Each end joint consists of 8 aluminium alloy rivets of 3.2
mm in diameter.
Determine the shear strength and the factor of safety on each

end if the applied load on each end is 15 kN.

Note: The Ultimate Shear Strength of aluminium alloy is 240 MPa

Stretch Exercise 1
1. A circular cable has a tensile force of 1 kN applied to it and the force produces
a stress of 7.8MPa in the cable. Calculate the diameter of the cable.
2. A bolt having a diameter of 5 mm is loaded so that the shear stress in it is

120MPa. Determine the value of the shear force on the bolt.
3. A wire of length 2.50m has a percentage strain of 0.012% when loaded with a
tensile force. Determine the extension of the wire.
4. A wire of length 4.5m has a percentage strain of 0.050% when loaded with a
tensile force. Determine the extension in the wire.
Stretch Exercise 2
1. A helicopter winch cable is used to lift a load of 25kN. If the winch cable is 5
metres in length and has a diameter of 12mm and extends by 5.3mm when
the load is lifted, calculate the following:
I. The tensile stress in the cable
II. The strain in the cable
III. The modulus of elasticity of the cable material
2. A 5m tall cast iron column with an inside diameter of 10mm and outside
diameter of 15mm has to support a maximum load of 75kN. If it compresses
by 21mm, calculate the following:
I. The compressive stress in the column
II. The strain experienced by the column
III. Young's modulus of cast iron
Practice Questions
1.A rectangular steel bar 10 mm x 16 mm and 200 mm long extends by 0.12 mm

under a tensile force of 20 kN. Find:
a) Tensile stress
b) Tensile strain
c) Elastic Modulus
2.If the Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) of steel is 400 N/m2, find the factor of safety
Factor of Safety

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BTEC Level 3 Extended Diploma & Diploma

Mechanical principles: principle of moments and conditions for static

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Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

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Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

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sum of anticlockwise moments = sum clockwise moments

sum of anticlockwise moments = sum clockwise moments

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Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

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Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

Resolving the forces vertically, we get

Considering the anticlockwise moments and the clockwise moments,

Substituting the value of R2 in the equation (i), we get

Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

Resolving the forces vertically, we get

Considering the anticlockwise moments and the clockwise moments, taking

Substituting the value of RD in the equation (i), we get

Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

Resolving the forces vertically, we get

Considering the anticlockwise moments and the clockwise moments,

Substituting the value of RB in the equation (i), we get

Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

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Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

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Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

Unit 67 Principles & Applications of Aircraft Mechanical Science

Item Mass Arm Moment CG CG = Total moment

5,862 kg 1,179,057 kgm 2.011 m CG = 2.011 metres behind the datum