Graduate Management

Aptitude Test (GMAT)

Verbal Lecture 10:
Reading Comprehension
 Inferences

These questions ask about ideas that are not explicitly stated in a passage but are
implied by the author.

Unlike questions about supporting details, which ask about information that is
directly stated in a passage, inference questions ask about ideas or meanings that
must be inferred from information that is directly stated.

Authors can make their points in indirect ways, suggesting ideas without actually
stating them.

Inference questions measure your ability to understand an author’s intended

meaning in parts of a passage where the meaning is only suggested.

These questions do not ask about meanings or implications that are remote from
the passage; rather, they ask about meanings that are developed indirectly or
implications that are specifically suggested by the author.
 Inferences
To answer these questions, you may have to :

• logically take statements made by the author one step beyond their literal
meanings
• recognize an alternative interpretation of a statement made by the author
• identify the intended meaning of a word used figuratively in a passage

If a passage explicitly states an effect, for example, you may be asked to infer its
cause. If the author compares two phenomena, you may be asked to infer the basis
for the comparison. You may be asked to infer the characteristics of an old policy
from an explicit description of a new one. When you read a passage, therefore, you
should concentrate not only on the explicit meaning of the author’s words, but also
on the more subtle meaning implied by those words.

"It can be inferred that the author makes which of the following assumptions?"
"Which is an assumption underlying the last sentence of the passage?”
"With which of the following statements regarding chaos theory would the
author be most likely to agree?"
 Inferences
Question
The golden toad of Costa Rica, whose beauty and rarity inspired an unusual degree of human
interest from a public generally unconcerned about amphibians, may have been driven to
extinction by human activity nevertheless. In the United States, a public relations campaign
featuring the toad raised money to purchase and protect the toad’s habitat in Costa Rica,
establishing the Monteverde Cloud Forest Preserve in 1972. Although this action seemed to
secure the toad’s future, it is now apparent that setting aside habitat was not enough to save
this beautiful creature. The toad’s demise in the late 1980s was a harbinger of further species
extinction in Costa Rica. Since that time, another twenty of the fifty species of frogs and toads
known to once inhabit a 30 square kilometer area near Monteverde have disappeared.

The unexplained, relatively sudden disappearance of amphibians in Costa Rica is not a unique
story. Populations of frogs, toads, and salamanders have declined or disappeared the world
over. Scientists hypothesize that the more subtle effects of human activities on the world’s
ecosystems, such as the build-up of pollutants, the decrease in atmospheric ozone, and
changing weather patterns due to global warming, are beginning to take their toll. Perhaps
amphibians - whose permeable skin makes them sensitive to environmental changes - are the
“canary in the coal mine,” giving us early notification of the deterioration of our environment. If
amphibians are the biological harbingers of environmental problems, humans would be wise to
heed their warning.
 Inferences
Question
It can be inferred from the passage that

A. only thirty species of frogs and toads remain in Costa Rica

B. humans do not have permeable skin
C. the build-up of pollutants in the atmosphere causes a decrease in atmospheric
ozone
D. humans do not usually take signals of environmental deterioration seriously
E. Costa Rica suffers from more serious environmental problems than many other
countries
 Inferences
Question
The correct answer to an inference question on the GMAT must be supported by evidence from the
text without need for external information.
A. only thirty species of frogs and toads remain in Costa Rica. The passage states that twenty of
the fifty species of frogs and toads known to once inhabit a 30-square-kilometer area near
Monteverde have disappeared. Nothing is implied about the areas of Costa Rica farther from
Monteverde. Incorrect
B. humans do not have permeable skin. The passage suggests that amphibians are able to offer
humans early notification of the deterioration of the environment because of the amphibians’
permeable skin. Thus, permeable skin must be a characteristic that humans do not possess.
Correct
C. the build-up of pollutants in the atmosphere causes a decrease in atmospheric ozone. No
causal relationship between the build-up of pollutants in the atmosphere and a decrease in
atmospheric ozone is suggested in the passage. Incorrect
D. humans do not usually take signals of environmental deterioration seriously. The author states
that humans would be wise to heed the warning offered by the decline of amphibious
populations, but nothing suggests that humans normally do not take signals of environmental
deterioration seriously. Incorrect
E. Costa Rica suffers from more serious environmental problems than many other countries. The
passage does not compare Costa Rica’s environmental problems to those of other countries.
The correct answer is (B)
 Applying information to a context
outside the passage itself

These questions measure your ability to discern the relationships between

situations or ideas presented by the author and other situations or ideas that might
parallel those in the passage.

In this kind of question, you may be asked to

• identify a hypothetical situation that is comparable to a situation presented in the

passage
• select an example that is similar to an example provided in the passage
• apply ideas given in the passage to a situation not mentioned by the author
• recognize ideas that the author would probably agree or disagree with on the
basis of statements made in the passage

These questions ask you to take information and conclusions in the passage and
extrapolate them to similar situations or ideas. The key to this question type is the
ability to identify the crux of an argument and see how it relates to a similar
situation.
 Applying information to a context
outside the passage itself

Common Question Tasks :

• Mirroring: Select an action or idea not discussed in the text that most mirrors an
action or idea discussed in the text
• Predicting: Make a prediction based upon the information in the passage

Unlike inference questions, application questions use ideas or situations not taken
from the passage. Ideas and situations given in a question are like those given in
the passage, and the parallel ideas and situations in the passage; therefore, to
answer the question, you must do more than recall what you read. You must
recognize the essential attributes of ideas and situations presented in the passage
when they appear in different words and in an entirely new context.

“The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the
following?”
“Which of the following statements would provide the most logical
continuation of the final paragraph?”
“[an idea or action described in the passage] is most similar to which of the
following?”
 Applying information to a context
outside the passage itself

Question
Ethnohistoric documents from sixteenth-century Mexico suggesting that weaving and cooking
were the most common productive activities for Aztec women may lead modern historians to
underestimate the value of women's contributions to Aztec society. Since weaving and cooking
occurred mostly (but not entirely) in a domestic setting, modern historians are likely to apply to
the Aztec culture the modern Western distinction between "private" and "public" production.
Thus, the ethnohistoric record conspires with Western culture to foster the view that women's
production was not central to the demographic, economic, and political structures in sixteenth-
century Mexico.

A closer examination of Aztec culture indicates that treating Aztec women's production in
Mexico in such a manner would be a mistake. Even if the products of women's labor did not
circulate beyond the household, such products were essential to population growth.
Researchers document a tenfold increase in the population of the valley of Mexico during the
previous four centuries, an increase that was crucial to the developing Aztec political economy.
Population growth--which could not have occurred in the absence of successful household
economy, in which women's work was essential--made possible the large-scale development of
labor-intensive chinampa (ridged-field) agriculture in the southern valley of Mexico which, in
turn, supported urbanization and political centralization in the Aztec capital.
 Applying information to a context
outside the passage itself

Question
But the products of women's labor did in fact circulate beyond the household. Aztec women
wove cloth, and cloth circulated through the market system, the tribute system, and the
redistributive economy of the palaces. Cotton mantles served as a unit of currency in the
regional market system. Quantities of woven mantles, loincloths, blouses, and skirts were paid
as tribute to local lords and to imperial tax stewards and were distributed to ritual and
administrative personnel, craft specialists, warriors, and other faithful servants of the state. In
addition, woven articles of clothing served as markers of social status and clothing fulfilled a
symbolic function in political negotiation. The cloth that was the product of women's work thus
was crucial as a primary means of organizing the flow of goods and services that sustained the
Aztec state.
The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the following statements
about the documents mentioned in the first sentence of the passage?
A. They contain misleading information about the kinds of productive activities Aztec women
engaged in.
B. They overlook certain crucial activities performed by women in Aztec society.
C. They provide useful information about the way that Aztec society viewed women.
D. They are of limited value because they were heavily influenced by the bias of those who
recorded them.
E. They contain information that is likely to be misinterpreted by modern-day readers.
 Applying information to a context
outside the passage itself

Question

A. They contain misleading information about the kinds of productive activities Aztec women
engaged in. It doesn’t question the evidence or the activities done by Aztec women. It
questions the interpretation.
B. They overlook certain crucial activities performed by women in Aztec society. There is full
knowledge about what work the women did.
C. They provide useful information about the way that Aztec society viewed women. It does
not mention anything about the way Aztec society viewed women.
D. They are of limited value because they were heavily influenced by the bias of those who
recorded them. There is mention about a bias based on "western" sensibilities but we don't
know for sure if the recorders were western or not
E. They contain information that is likely to be misinterpreted by modern-day readers. Yes.
There is a fear of misinterpretation by in modern days. Correct

The correct answer is (E)

 Logical Structure

These questions require you to analyze and evaluate the organization and logic of a
passage. They may ask you

• how a passage is constructed—for instance, does it define, compare or contrast,

present a new idea, or refute an idea?
• how the author persuades readers to accept his or her assertions
• the reason behind the author’s use of any particular supporting detail
• to identify assumptions that the author is making
• to assess the strengths and weaknesses of the author’s arguments
• to recognize appropriate counterarguments

These questions measure your ability not only to comprehend a passage but also to
evaluate it critically. However, it is important for you to realize that logical structure
questions do not rely on any kind of formal logic, nor do they require you to be
familiar with specific terms of logic or argumentation. You can answer these
questions using only the information in the passage and careful reasoning.
 Logical Structure
Logical structure questions ask you to determine the relationship between different
parts of a passage. The key to this question type is understanding the relationship
between each idea and paragraph. You must be able to separate ideas that support
a thesis from the thesis idea itself. Another huge help will be the “logical direction”
words — “moreover”, “although”, “ironically”, “but” etc.  Always pay attention to
these words when you read anything, to the way they shape the passage, and you
thereby will start to develop an intuitive sense of the logical structure of passages.

“Does the author present her own new idea?”

“Does the author contrast two ideas, showing evenhandedly the strengths and
weaknesses of both?”
“Does the author sharping criticize a particular position or perspective?” 
“What would be the best title for this passage?
“One function of the third paragraph of this passage is to”
“Which of the following best describes the relation of the first paragraph to the
passage as a whole?”
 Logical Structure
Question
All the cells in a particular plant start out with the same complement of genes. How then can these cells
differentiate and form structures as different as roots, stems, leaves, and fruits? The answer is that only a small
subset of the genes in a particular kind of cell are expressed, or turned on, at a given time. This is accomplished
by a complex system of chemical messengers that in plants include hormones and other regulatory molecules.
Five major hormones have been identified: auxin, abscisic acid, cytokinin, ethylene, and gibberellin. Studies of
plants have now identified a new class of regulatory molecules called oligosaccharins.

Unlike the oligosaccharins, the five well-known plant hormones are pleiotropic rather than specific; that is, each
has more than one effect on the growth and development of plants. The five have so many simultaneous effects
that they are not very useful in artificially controlling the growth of crops. Auxin, for instance, stimulates the rate of
cell elongation, causes shoots to grow up and roots to grow down, and inhibits the growth of lateral shoots. Auxin
also causes the plant to develop a vascular system, to form lateral roots, and to produce ethylene.

The pleiotropic of the five well-studied plant hormones is somewhat analogous to that of certain hormones in
animals. For example, hormones from the hypothalamus in the brain stimulate the anterior lobe of the pituitary
gland to synthesize and release many different hormones, one of which stimulates the release of hormones from
the adrenal cortex. These hormones have specific effects on target organs all over the body. One hormone
stimulates the thyroid gland, for example, another the ovarian follicle cells, and so forth. In other words, there is a
hierarchy of hormones.

Such a hierarchy may also exist in plants. Oligosaccharins are fragments of the cell wall released by enzymes:
different enzymes release different oligosaccharins. There are indications that pleiotropic plant hormones may
actually function by activating the enzymes that release these other, more specific chemical messengers from the
cell wall.
 Logical Structure
Question
The author mentions specific effects that auxin has on plant development in order to
illustrate the

A. point that some of the effects of plant hormones can be harmful

B. way in which hormones are produced by plants
C. hierarchical nature of the functioning of plant hormones
D. differences among the best-known plant hormones
E. concept of pleiotropy as it is exhibited by plant hormones
 Logical Structure
Question
To answer this question, reread the section where auxin is discussed. e second paragraph explains
that each of the five major pleiotropic hormones, including auxin, has more than one effect on the
growth and development of plants. e author then lists auxin’s multiple effects as an example of the
principle of pleiotropy in plants.
A. point that some of the effects of plant hormones can be harmful. The passage
does not discuss harmful effects. Incorrect
B. way in which hormones are produced by plants. The passage discusses the
effects of hormones, not their production. Incorrect
C. hierarchical nature of the functioning of plant hormones. Auxin is used to
exemplify the many different effects of a pleiotropic hormone, not its role in a
hierarchy of hormones. Incorrect
D. differences among the best-known plant hormones. The differences among the
five major hormones are not discussed. Incorrect
E. concept of pleiotropy as it is exhibited by plant hormones. The author lists
auxin’s multiple effects to illustrate how pleiotropic hormones affect plant growth.
Correct
The correct answer is (E)
 Style and Tone

Style and tone questions ask about the expression of a passage and about the
ideas in a passage that may be expressed through its diction—the author’s choice
of words. You may be asked to deduce the author’s attitude to an idea, a fact, or a
situation from the words that he or she uses to describe it. You may also be asked
to select a word that accurately describes the tone of a passage—for instance,
“critical,” “questioning,” “objective,” or “enthusiastic.”

To answer this type of question, you will have to consider the language of the
passage as a whole. It takes more than one pointed, critical word to make the tone
of an entire passage “critical.” Sometimes, style and tone questions ask what
audience the passage was probably intended for or what type of publication it
probably appeared in. Style and tone questions may apply to one small part of the
passage or to the passage as a whole. To answer them, you must ask yourself what
meanings are contained in the words of a passage beyond the literal meanings. Did
the author use certain words because of their emotional content, or because a
particular audience would expect to hear them? Remember, these questions
measure your ability to discern meaning expressed by the author through his or her
choice of words.
 Style and Tone

• Look for descriptive words, adjectives or adverbs, that could tell you the author's
attitude. For example, the words unfortunately or flaw suggest a negative
connotation, while strength or valuable emphasize the positive.

• Never base your guess about the author's tone on a single word--this is not
enough to define the tone of the entire passage.

• Keep in mind that the author's attitude toward a theory, book, or ethnic group will
almost always be respectful, even when somewhat critical.

Tone questions tend to be among the more infrequent question types.

"The author's attitude towards Morgan's theory could best be described as

one of ..."
"The tone of the author is best described as"
 Style and Tone
Question
The secure transmission of messages has always been a chief concern of those engaged in
politics, warfare, or business. One common way to deny access to information in a message is to
encrypt it, effectively making the content of the message unintelligible to any viewer who does not
possess the key. However, as ciphers can be broken, perhaps Steganography - disguising the
message as something else - would be a much cleverer way to protect messages. Steganography
is based on the sender's ability to conceal the content of the message within some other data so
that the message would only be found by someone who knows where to look for it. One ingenious
example of steganography in ancient times was when Histiaeus, the ruler of a city named Mileus,
tattooed a secret message on the shaved head of his slave and then waited for the slave's hair to
grow back before sending the slave to his allies.
Today, steganographers employ computers in the process of embedding valuable digital data in
seemingly unrelated content. All digital data are essentially comprised of bits, binary digits
representing one of two states. Strings of bits may represent letters, sounds, or colors in a picture
or a movie, depending on how they are read. This makes it easy for steganographers to hide
secret information in a format or a medium, in which no one would expect to find this information. A
sender could, say, encode a letter in every hundredth bit of a file that represents a picture of a
flower. Anyone looking at the image would only see a flower and perhaps a slight change of
shade; the latter would require that they be familiar with the original picture. However, anyone who
knew about the letter could extract every hundredth bit of the picture and reconstruct the message
within.
 Style and Tone
Question
The author's attitude toward encryption can best be described as

A. mildly condescending
B. positively favorable
C. vehemently opposing
D. possibly unfavorable
E. somewhat ambiguous
 Style and Tone
Question
This is a Style/Tone question. This means that in addition to the Initial Reading of the passage, we
also need to read the sentence(s) in which encryption is discussed.

A. mildly condescending. The fact that the author is not in favor of encryption does not mean
the author's attitude is condescending. The word condescending automatically eliminates
this answer choice. Incorrect.
B. positively favorable. Read the third sentence of the first paragraph again. There is nothing
that indicates that the author has a favorable attitude toward encryption. Incorrect
C. vehemently opposing. Even though the author indeed seems to think less of encryption
than he or she thinks of steganography, this answer choice is too extreme. Incorrect.
D. possibly unfavorable. “However, as ciphers can be broken, perhaps Steganography...
would be a much cleverer way to protect messages [than encryption is].” The author
focuses on promoting steganography over encryption, a fact which reveals a possibly
unfavorable attitude towards the latter. Correct
E. somewhat ambiguous. It is true that the author does not clearly state what he or she
thinks of encryption. However, there are some indications of the author's inclination in
regards to encryption, and there is another answer choice which takes those indications
into consideration. Incorrect.
The correct answer is (D)