PE : SECTION B

(2 ½ HR EXAM – 70%)
SECTION 2: SKILL & PSYCHOLOGY
Characteristics of a Skill
Characteristics of a Skill
◦ Learned - The person has spent time practicing the movement
◦ E.g. Spiking a shot in badminton

◦ Efficient - The skill is performed with minimum wasted effort or expense.

◦ E.g. A pro butterfly swimmer will not make any unnecessary splashing and kicking when
racing

◦ Goal Directed - There is some pre-planning with the intention to achieve a known result.
◦ E.g. Following a set play in netball game
Characteristics of a Skill
◦ Follows technical model -  The movement/ skill matches the demonstration. It is a learned
style.
◦ E.g. Passing - in netball, basketball, football

◦ Fluent - The action is smooth and movements flow together

◦ E.g. Ttrampolinist will perform a routine so that each move flows smoothly into the next

◦ Aesthetically pleasing - The skill looks good/pleasing to the eye. The movement is performed
quickly and easy without wasting energy
◦ E.g. Snowboarding skills and the flow
Classification of Skills
Open Skill Performed in a changing Interception during a netball game
environment, performer must react
and adapt to external factors

Closed Skill Always performed in the same Trampolining

predictable environment, there is no Diving from a platform or board
external factors

Gross Skill Lots of Muscles Javelin

Maybe the whole body Basketball Free throw
Large muscle groups
Little precision

Fine Skill Small Movements Golf Putting

Small Muscles used Snooker
Usually precision/accuracy Darts
Classification of Skills
Discrete Have a clear beginning and Taking a penalty kick in soccer
ending A serve in tennis

Serial Have a number if discrete The triple jump in which the

elements linked together hop, step and jump are linked
into one movement

Continuous Cannot be split up very easily A hockey player dribbling a ball

into subroutines, doesn’t have a
clear beginning and end

Internally Paced Are those in which the performer Serving in netball

has control over the movement Free kick in football

Externally Paced Are those in which the Blocking in volleyball

environment has more control Interception in netball
Tackling in rugby
Classification of Skills
Simple Skill Is a straightforward one, requires Running with the ball in a
little concentration and cognitive straight line in rugby
ability

Complex Skill Involves a large attention span as Able to scrummage successfully

they are complicated and must be Serving in tennis
practiced

Low Organisation Skill Skill is easy and uncomplicate, Gymnastic floor routine
phases that make up the skill are
usually discrete

High Organisation Skill has a complex number of Road cycling

Skill phases involved which cannot be Gold drive
broken down and practised  
separately
Classification of skills
◦ A continuum is an imaginary sliding scale on which skills can be places between two extremes
to show a gradual increase or decrease in characteristic.
◦ Continua can be used to classify sills and to develop knowledge and understanding of the
characteristics of skills.
◦ This is useful is structuring practices when taking on the role of leader or coach.
◦ Classification can help us to teach practice and improved skills in the most efficient way.
Motor Skill Development
Motor Skill Development
Motor ability
is an ability in which the performer (or beginner) is able to move using simple muscle movements.
E.g. able to run.

Fundamental motor skills

are common motor activities with specific observable patterns. Children normally develop motor skills in a sequential manner.
Fundamental motor skills comprise one level in the continuum of motor skill acquisition. Children at the fundamental motor skill
stage are building upon previously learned movements and preparing for the acquisition of more advanced skills.
E.g. running, jumping, throwing and catching.

Sport specific skills

are voluntary, coordinated tasks with sport-specific goals. Most skills used in sports and movement activities are advanced
versions of fundamental motor skills. For example, throwing in softball and cricket, the baseball pitch, javelin throw, tennis serve
and netball shoulder pass are all advanced forms of the overhand throw. The presence of all or part of the overhand throw can be
detected in the patterns used in these sport specific motor skills. Similar relationships can be detected among other fundamental
motor skills and specific sport skills and movements.
Influences of early experiences and
environmental exposure
 Application
1. The flow diagram shows that, to learn a specific skill in sport, a performer progresses from motor
abilities through fundamental motor skills to sport specific skills.

Motor abilities fundamental motor skills sport specific skills

Describe using a practical example from a team sport, this progression in skill development.
(4marks)

2. Explain how the development of a motor skills is affected by early childhood experiences and
environment exposure. (4marks)
Mark Scheme
Mark Scheme
 Operant conditioning

Theories
related to the The Cognitive Theory
learning of
motor skills
Observational Learning
Theories related to the learning of motor
skills
What is a stimulus-response (S/R) bond?

◦ This is when learning is possible because similar new connections may be formed by which a
given stimulus always tends to produce a given response= S/R bond.

◦ Associationalist theories state that the learning occurs as a result of the association or
connection between a stimulus and a response, this stimulus-response connection is called the
S-R bond.
Operant
Conditioning
The theory of Operant conditioning
◦ When learning a skill Operant conditioning aims to develop and strengthen the stimulus- response
(S-R) bond.

◦ Trial and error through learning and practicing is a process that involves modification of behaviour.

◦ Behavior is shaped and then reinforced which strengthens the S/R bond.

◦ Reinforcement must be present for conditioning to take place. (*positive and negative
reinforcement)

◦ Punishment or annoyance weakens the S-R bond whereas physical mental preparedness strengths
the S/R bond.
Different types of reinforcement
Positive reinforcement

◦ Is the use of praise e.g. coach says well done, rewards, self satisfaction (to strengthen the S/R
bond.

Negative Reinforcement

◦ The removal of criticism or an unpleasant stimulus e.g. the coach stops shouting (to strengthen
the S/R bond)
Advantages
• Performers develop specific skills through their practice.

• Coaches can control the training session. They can set targets and goals.

• Specific game related practices can be developed.

• Use of reinforcement/ success to increase motivation.

• Modifying the environment helps success to be achieved.

Disadvantages
• Difficult to modify or adjust skills to new situations.

• Performer unable to develop own strategies and may be reliant on coach.

• Performer does not understand relationship between S/R bonds/ sub routines.

• Too much punishment may reduce motivation.

• Trial and error learning may be time consuming.

Coaches using operant conditioning to
help develop skills
◦ Learning is based on the S/R bond relationship.

◦ Coaches use trial and error learning.

◦ Coaches may manipulate the environment to obtain desired response. E.g. use of target areas, mechanical
feeders, equipment

◦ They use conditioning to shape behaviour.

◦ The use of reinforcement is used to bring about desired response, (rewards/ praise/ self satisfaction).

◦ The use of punishment is used to decrease probability of undesired response.

Application

◦ Outline the theory of operant

conditioning and explain the
benefits of using this approach
to develop skillful
performances. (6marks)
Cognitive Learning
◦ Concerned with the thinking and understanding rather than connecting certain stimuli to certain responses.

◦ It is sometimes known as insight learning.

◦ Kohler- 1 in 7 could solve, previous experiences helped solve quicker.

Cognitive theories recognize that we often learn taking into account our environment and what this means to
us as individuals.

Example, a football player who recognises that the pitch is particularly slippery will take this into account and adapt
their play accordingly.
Gestaltists – ‘wholeness of form’
◦ Gentalists formed the cognitive theory of learning, which involves understanding a problem to
give insight into learning.

◦ Insight is facilitated by past experiences.

◦ Practical application of this theory include using a whole approach to skill learning, rather than
splitting a skill into parts. Also, experiences to allow the learner to develop problem solving
and decision-making skills.
 Practical example
• The cognitive view lends support to the ‘whole
practice’ teaching, rather than part practice.

• Playing the game, so that the participants

understand what is required, is more effective
than simply learning skills separately, according
to the cognitive approach.

• Giving young children sporting experiences may

also help with future learning and motor
development because the child can draw from
these experiences to understand a problem and
then solve it, gaining insight into the learning
process.
Summary of cognitive learning
◦ Cognitive learning also known as insight learning or the Gestaltist theory involves thinking
about the solution to a problem.

◦ The performer experiences the whole movement rather than part practice. The performer
develops an understanding of the problem (eureka moment) to discover the requirement of
skills needed.

◦ The performer draws together many variables and can then modify/adjust their actions based
on their previous experiences.
Benefits of cognitive learning
1. Cognitive learning is adaptable and can be modified.

2. Cognitive learning encourages problem solving, discovery and independent learners.

3. It increases motivation of the performer.

4. Cognitive learning may speed up learning.

5. Cognitive learning helps develop schema

Explain the cognitive theory of learning
movement skills (3marks)
Observational Learning
◦ Observational learning is when you learn by watching or copying from others.

Bandura’s theory of observational learning

Bandura’s theory of observational
learning
According to Bandura copying or modelling can affect our performance through four processes.

◦ Attention
◦ Retention
◦ Motor reproduction
◦ Motivation
 Key Terminology- Very important
◦ Attention- the performer focuses(pays attention or concentrates) on aspects of display or demonstration.

◦ Retention- performer needs to remember the information and demonstration of the movements or
behaviours and create a mental image that they then store in their long term memory.

◦ Motor reproduction- the performer must be capable of performing the skill. The information given must
be a level relevant to the performer and they then must be physically able to match and replicate the
demonstration.

◦ Motivation- The performer must have the drive (desire or motivation) or the want to learn to copy the
model.
Application

1. Bandura’s theory of observational learning includes the elements of attention, retention,

retention, motor reproduction and motivation.
Explain how each of these four elements assists the learning of movement skills. (4marks)

2. Suggest ways a coach could make a demonstration more effective when teaching a
movement skill. (3marks)
 Open loop control

Theories
related to motor Closed loop control
and executive
programmes
Schema theory
Theories related to motor and executive
programmes
What is meant by an executive motor
programme?
Executive Motor programmes are;

◦ Series of subroutines. A generalised series of movement completed in the correct sequence.

◦ Governs which muscle contracts in what order and with what time.
◦ Stored in the long-term memory which enables a performer to create and repeat a skill.
◦ Selected from the long-term memory, but then run by the short-term memory.
◦ Developed through well-guided and well informed practice over a long period of time.
◦ Well learned sub-routines become sub-conscious allowing new skill to be developed.
◦ Complex skills made up of parts;

◦ High Jump includes a Run up, Take off, flight and landing.
Open and Closed Loop Theory
Sporting examples
◦ Closed loop- receiving a serve in tennis or Gymnast balancing

◦ Open loop – golf swing

Schema theory 
◦ Explains how sports performers can undertake so many actions with very little conscious control. 

◦ LTM isn't big enough to store all the motor programmes required. 

◦ Schema theory states that we develop and store in memory a set of schema which can then be adapted or
refined to deal with a new situation. 

◦ Schema theory is a way of modifying the motor programme by the use of schema or rules of
information (Cambridge International) 

◦ A schema is defined as a set of relationships involving joint actions and muscular contractions which
produce movement. 
1. Knowledge of Initial Conditions

’Where am I?’

Concerns the information from the environment such as position on court or position in relation
to the other players.
2. Response Specifications
◦ ‘What do I need to do?’

◦ Assess the available options. What would be best in this situation?

3. Sensory Consequences
◦ Concerns the use of the senses to help guide the movement. Sensory feedback such as touch
and kinesthesis help to control and apply the movement.
4. Movement Outcomes
◦ Getting knowledge of the results of the action. Was I successful? If the action was a success, it
can help strengthen the Schema for next time. If not, adjustments will be made for the next
time.
Application of the schema theory in
teaching and coaching
◦ Example: Schema for a tennis serve
Sporting Example 
Recall Schema
◦ Knowledge of the court, playing surface, and position of the opponent. 
◦ Speed of the serve required and precise direction.
◦ Performed without feedback (no time to reach the brain) 

Recognition Schema
◦ Provides the elements of the sensory consequences (the knowledge of where the serve actually ended up-
was it returned?)
◦ Was it is the required direction?
◦ Could they recover and begin a response to the return if made? 
◦ Feedback would inform performer of the next movement in the game. 

◦ There would be a different schema for the second serve- although technically it would be
similar it would feel completely different. 

◦ Top players are able to switch between these schema. 

Application
Schmidt's schema theory is based on various sources of information. 
Explain the role of recognition schema on modifying and evaluating motor programmes. (4marks) 
Basic Models of Information Processing
Theory of information processing in the
performance of motor skills
◦ A set of theories which seek to explain human action by showing how we take information
from our surroundings and make decisions about what to do next on the basis of
our interpretation of that information. 

Simplest model of information processing

Model of information processing
1. Display
◦ Almost any aspect of the immediate environment can act as input and is called a display from
which the performer can select using his or her senses that which is relevant to his or her game
or activity. 

Example- Basketball pass

◦ Using your eyes- position on court, position of opponent, seeing the ball, seeing where the net
is. 
◦ Using your ears- listening for calls from teammates, listening for instructions, listening for
whistles from referee. 
◦ Using your hands-feeling the ball, aware of your arms and legs 
2. Sensory Information and 3. sense
organs  
◦ The senses used to collect information are collectively known as receptor systems. 
◦ When playing sport we use all senses (bar taste and smell). 

1. Vision and hearing (audition) deal with information from the external environment. 

2. Hearing- works in a similar way, electrical impulses transmitted to the brain. 

Sensory information and sense organs
◦ Proprioception- How our body is oriented in space and the extent to which muscles are
contracted or joints extended. Allows us to feel the ball or racket. 

1. Touch- enables us to feel pain, pressure and temperature. E.g. grip of a racket
2. Equilibrium- tells when your body is balanced and when it is tipping turning or inverting.
E.g. dancers, divers, gymnasts
3. Kinaesthesis- sense that informs the brain of the movement or state of contraction of the
muscles, tendons and joints. Experienced performers can see and sense when movement has
been performed correctly. 
4. Perception

◦ Perception is described as stimulus identification. As info is received from the environment,

the performer needs to make sense of it, interprets it and to identify the elements which are
relevant and important.
◦ Perception filters and selects information.
◦ It then codes information to make sense of it to the individual.
◦ Involves detection, comparison, recognition process. 
◦ Include use of the memory and performers experiences.
◦ Uses motor programmes from LTM. 
◦ Uses schema to refine processing to make performance effective. 
5. Decision Making 

◦ Following the input, a performer must make decisions based on all the information available,
but there usually will be so much of this that he or she must select that which is relevant. 

◦ This is done by a process called selective attention

6. Effector Mechanism 

◦ The effector mechanism is responsible for organising, initiating and controlling (selecting) a
motor programme and organises response to the muscular system to allow the movement to
take place. 
Response

◦ Involves the effector and the muscular system. The nerves send messages to the muscles
which move in order for the ball to be caught. 
8. Feedback

◦ Is used during and after an action or movement which enables a performer to adjust or change
performance according to this new information. 
Memory
STSS
◦ This is because of the Short Term Sensory Store (STSS)

◦ All the information available is held in the STSS for a very short time

◦ If the perceptual mechanism decides that the info is not relevant it is discarded

◦ The STSS has a large capacity for information but minimal storage time

◦ This is to filter out irrelevant info to make sure it is not overloaded

Internal and Involuntary attention
◦ Internal attention – If we are looking out for a particular stimulus

◦ Involuntary attention – a particular happening attracts our attention

◦ When either of these situations occurs we focus on the stimulus by selective attention.

◦ This process passes the info to the short term memory to be held for processing for up to 30 secs.
Memory
Model
Short Term – Sensory Store

◦ The STSS is the area of the brain

◦ which receives info and stores it Long term
◦ for less than 1 second prior to MEMORY processing

◦ Info deemed ’unimportant’ is lost and replaced by new info

Selective Attention

◦ Selective attention is used to sort out relevant info from the many which are received
Short Term Memory

◦ Short Term Memory is the part of the brain which keeps info for 20-30 seconds after it has
been deemed worthy of attention

◦ STM can carry 5-9 separate items of info

◦ This can be aided by chunking

◦ The info can be used for problem solving or passed to the LTM for permanent storage
Long Term Memory

◦ LTM is the part of the brain that retains info for long periods (up to a lifetime)

◦ Very well learned info is stored

◦ LTM is limitless and not forgotten, although may need a code for info to be recalled
 Strategies to Improve a Performers
Selective Attention

Increase the intensity of

Relevant/specific practice Practice with distractions Focus on specific cues
the stimulus

Make information or the

Mental Transfer of learning/ link practice more
Motivating performer
rehearsal/visualisation to past experiences meaningful/enjoyable/interesti
ng/memorable
Reaction Time
Reaction Time 

◦ Reaction time – Time taken from presentation of the stimulus and the start of the movement. 
Response Time

◦ The time taken from initaition to the response. 

Relationship between the three:

Response time = Reaction time + Movement time

Movement time

◦ The time taken from the start of a movement to completion

Hicks Law
Choice reaction time

◦ If several stimuli are received but only one must be selected for a response then a choice must
be made as to which stimulus to respond to.

◦ The more choices a person has, the more processing that is needed, the longer it takes to
process, the slower the reaction time (Hick’s Law)
PRP
◦ The PRP occurs when an initial stimulus is presented to a performer, which may cause a
reaction, and then a second stimulus is presented.

◦ The PRP is the time lag that occurs in responding to the second stimulus, caused by the
reaction to the first stimulus.

◦ Therefore slowing down the processing of information between the relevant information and
the appropriate response. Eg defending in rugby
Feedback
The importance and functions of
feedback 
◦ Feedback is any information received about a performance either during or after the
performance.

◦ Feedback is important because it tells the performer what to do to correct errors and it
prevents any incorrect actions occurring.

◦ It can also reinforce correct actions so that they are replaced.

◦ Feedback will also improve the performer's confidence and motivation. 

Main functions of feedback

◦ To motivate the performer 

◦ To strengthen the S-R bond 
◦ To give information on errors in order to correct them and improve
◦ To give information on technique and knowledge of their performance 
◦ To give information and knowledge on the result
◦ To increase confidence
Phases of learning movement skills 
1. The Cognitive stage 
◦ The skill is performed without thinking (subconsciously). 

◦ Very few errors are made. 

◦ The performer can focus on the strategic aspect of the skills. 

◦ Motor programmes are fully formed. 

◦ Intrinsic kinaesthesis is used by the performer to correct their own mistakes. Extrinsic feedback is
used infrequently to correct errors. 
2. The Associative stage 
◦ The peformer must continue to practice in order improve. 

◦ More simple skills are performed consistently and effectively

◦ Fewer errors are made. 

◦ Motor programmes are developing.

◦ Demonstrations, positive feedback and mental rehersal are still needed. Extrinsic feedback is still
used to refine skills. Intrinsic feedback begins to develop. 
3. The Autonomous stage 
◦ The skill is performed without thinking (subconsciously). 

◦ Very few errors are made. 

◦ The performer can focus on the strategic aspect of the skills. 

◦ Motor programmes are fully formed. 

◦ Intrinsic kinaesthesis is used by the performer to correct their own mistakes. Extrinsic feedback is
used infrequently to correct errors. 
Transfer of Learning
What is transfer of learning?

Transfer of learning is;

◦ The influence of the learning.

◦ The performance of one skills on the learning.

◦ The performance of another skill.

Positive Transfer
◦ This type of transfer occurs when learning in another task enhances learning in one task.
◦ For example, learning a golf stroke may be enhanced by virtue of the fact that the player is a good cricketer.

Negative Transfer
◦ This type of transfer is where there is a negative influence of one skill on a skill that has previously been
learned.
◦ For example, a hockey player learns the flicking skill, which may have a negative effect on the previously
learned push (the push pass may be lifted unnecessarily).

Proactive Transfer
◦ This type of transfer refers to the influence of one skill on a skill yet to be learned.
◦ For example, having learned the forehand drive-in tennis, the action is then modified to the forehand drive
with topspin.
Retroactive Transfer
◦ This occurs when the learning of a new task is interfered with by the knowledge of a similar activity.
◦ For example, the flexible use of the wrist needed for badminton may interfere with the firm wrist needed
for tennis.

Bilateral Transfer
◦ This is the transfer, which takes place from one limb to another, sometimes called lateralisation.
◦ For example, a soccer player learns to kick a ball with the non-preferred foot, the actions are learnt
through reference by the brain to the preferred foot

Zero Transfer
◦ This describes the situation where no transfer at all may occur even between skills, which appear to be
similar.
◦ For example, learning at squash may have zero transfer from weight training.
Motivation