Relations

Limited superiorly by the attachment of sternothyroid to the oblique

Apex
line of the thyroid cartilage
Base At the level of the 4th or 5th tracheal ring

Sternothyroid
Lateral Sternohyoid
surface Superior belly of omohyoid
Anterior border of SCM
2 tubes – trachea, oesophagus
Medial
2 muscles - inferior constrictor, cricothyroid
surface
2 nerves - external laryngeal n., recurrent laryngeal n.

Posterolateral surface Carotid sheath – contents?

Anterior border Anterior branch of superior thyroid a.

Inferior thyroid a.
The anastomosis between the superior and inferior thyroid aa.
Posterior border
PARATHYROID GLANDS
Thoracic duct (ONLY on left)
 Endogenous Pathway of Lipoprotein Metabolism
5 marks for diagram

5 marks for text write-up

•This pathway occurs all the time, fasting or otherwise (1 mark)
•Involves VLDL & LDL metabolism (1 mark)
•Liver synthesizes VLDL and secretes VLDL into Space of Disse, and VLDL make their way into the bloodstream (1 mark)
•VLDL are triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and undergo lipolysis at capillary endothelium (1 mark)
•VLDL are lipolysed to IDL and then LDL by lipoprotein lipase (LPL) (1 mark)
•LDL are major carriers of blood cholesterol (75%), mainly as cholesteryl esters (2 marks)
•LDL deliver free cholesterol to peripheral tissues (eg adrenal medulla for steroidogenesis) (2 marks)
•Regulated LDL uptake by hepatic (B,E) receptors maintains blood cholesterol at normal levels (1 mark)
Color - grayish-pink
Shape - ovoid or almond shaped
Size - 3cm long,1.5cm wide and 1cm thick
Situation - the ovarian fossa on the lateral wall of the
lesser pelvis
The ovarian fossa -bounded anteriorly by the obliterated umbilical
artery and posteriorly by the ureter and internal iliac artery
Surfaces - smooth before regular ovulation later distorted by
the cicatrization (degeneration of successive
corpora lutea)
- Has two surfaces medial and lateral,
- Medial surface is related to the uterine tube
- Lateral surface – wall of the ovarian fossa
Ovaries in ovarian fossa
Female pelvis – showing position of ovary
 Extremities
-
Superior or tubal and Inferior or uterine
- The tubal extremity is near the external iliac vein- the
ovarian fimbria of the uterine tube and suspensory ligament
of the ovary
- The uterine extremity is directed downwards towards the
pelvic floor and is attached to the lateral angle of the uterus
by the ligament of the ovary
Borders- Mesovrian and free borders
- straight and attached to the back of the
broad ligament by a short fold of peritoneum-
the mesovarian
- Free border is convex and is directed towards
the ureter
 Ligaments of the ovary

Suspensory ligament of the ovary

- a fold of peritoneum passes from the ovary to the
lateral pelvic wall
- Contains the ovarian vessels and nerves
Ligament of the ovary - a rounded fibrous cord -
attaches uterine extremity of the ovary to the lateral
angle of the uterus postero-inferior to the uterine
tube
 Blood Vessels

- Arteries - Ovarian arteries branches from the abdominal aorta

- Veins - a pampiniform plexus on the artery- A single ovarian
vein The Right vein drains to the inferior vena cava and the left
to the left renal vein
Lymph Vessels- ascends along the ovarian artery to the lateral and
pre-aortic group of the lymph nodes
Nerve supply – By ovarian plexus around the ovarian artery. Plexus
is formed by branches from the renal, aortic, superior and inferior
hypogastric plexus
Hormonal Feedback and the Regulation
of the Male Reproductive Function

Figure 28.12
Vitamin and Mineral Supplements
Most people no need supplements. Most people can obtain
the vitamin and minerals they need if they eat a healthy diet.

Supplements should be prescribed by a qualified health /

medical personnel. An overdose of certain vitamin or mineral
supplements especially the fat soluble vitamin can lead to
toxicity problems.

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Vitamin and mineral supplementation should be considered for
certain groups of people:

1. Women with excessive bleeding during menstruation

may need extra iron.

2. Women who are pregnant or breastfeeding may need

extra iron, folate and calcium

3. People with very low energy intakes need a range of

vitamins and minerals

4. Some vegetarians may need extra calcium, iron, zinc,

and vitamin B-12

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5. Newborns, under the direction of a physician, need a
single dose of vitamin K

6. People with limited milk intake and sunlight exposure

may need extra vitamin D

7. Individuals with lactose intolerance or allergies to dairy

products may need extra calcium

8. Individuals with certain medical condition and those

who use certain medication also require
supplementation with specific vitamins and minerals
under the direction of a physician.

12
 Factors Affecting Bioavailability of Orally
Administered Drugs
• Drug formulation
• Physico-chemical properties
• Solubility of drugs in lipid
• Present of carrier-mediated transport
• Blood supply to the gastro intestine
• Gastric emptying time
• Present of food in the stomach
• Present of other drugs in the gut
(drug interaction)
• Gut motility
• GIT diseases/surgery
• First pass effect*
• Describe how the cellular mechanism ensure
the insertion of correct amino acids to form
polypeptide from messenger RNA.
• Describe components of innate immunity and
their functions
 Yeast
• Microscopically:
– unicellular fungi (resembling bacteria but larger)
– Budding (asexual reproduction) also known as
blastoconidia (blastospores)

yeast

blastoconidia
 Yeast

yeast
Blastoconidia elongate to
form pseudohyphae

blastoconidia
Basic structure of mould
 Hyphae
• Divided into cells by cross wall – septa,
typically growing at regular intervals after
hyphal growth
 Structure for Identification
• The mass of hyphae is called a mycelium
• The pattern of septae in these hyphae, the
pattern of branching, the presence or absence
of pigmentation, the shape of the hyphae etc.
all aid in identifying different fungi
 Morphology
mould
• Mould
– Filamentous fungi
– a fuzzy appearance because they
grow as tubular structures called
hyphae
– E.g Penicillium spp.
• Yeast yeast
– Superficially homogenous,
unicellular fungi
– single celled and form creamy
bacterial-like colonies in culture
– E.g Candida spp