Naval Structure Of Cholas

History
The Chola Navy or Royal Chola Navy comprised the naval forces of the Chola Empire along with several
other naval-arms of the country. The navy played a vital role in the expansion of the Chola Empire,
including the conquest of the Ceylon islands and naval raids on Sri Vijaya (present-day Indonesia).
The navy grew both in size and status during the Medieval Cholas reign. The Chola Admirals commanded
much respect and prestige in the society. The navy commanders also acted as diplomats in some
instances. From 900 to 1100, the navy had grown from a small backwater entity to that of a potent power
projection and diplomatic symbol in all of Asia, but was gradually reduced in significance when the Cholas
fought land battles for subjugating the Chalukyas of Andhra-Kannada area in South India. Historians
divide the Chola Reign into three distinct phases. The first era is the period of Early Cholas .The second
phase is of Vijalaya Cholas and the final phase in the empire was the Chalukya Chola period.
The Cholas were at the height of their power from the later half of the 9th century through to the early
13th century. Under Rajaraja Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I, the dynasty became a military,
economic and cultural power in Asia. During the period 1010–1200, the Chola territories stretched from
the islands of the Maldives in the south to as far north as the banks of the Godavari River in 
Andhra Pradesh. Rajaraja Chola conquered peninsular South India, annexed parts of Sri Lanka and
occupied the islands of the Maldives. Rajendra Chola sent a victorious expedition to North India that
touched the river Ganges and defeated the Pala ruler of Pataliputra, Mahipala. He also successfully raided
kingdoms of Maritime Southeast Asia
 Early Activity
The earliest Chola kings of whom there is tangible evidence are mentioned in the Sangam
literature. Scholars now generally agree that this literature belongs to the first few centuries of
the common era. The Sangam literature is full of names of the kings and the princes, and of the
poets who extolled them. Despite literature that depicts the life and work of these people, these
cannot be worked into connected history.
Ancient navyThe earliest record of Chola naval activity by an external source dates to around the
1st century, the Roman report of Kaveripoompattinam (presently known as Poombuhar)
as Haverpoum and a description of how the Trade vessels were escorted by the King's fleet to the
estuary as it was a natural harbor in the mouth of the river Kaveri.
Little archeological evidence exists of the maritime activities of this era, except some excavated
wooden plaques depicting naval engagements in the vicinity of the old city (See Poompuhar for
more details). However, much insight into the naval activities of the Cholas has been gathered
from Periplus of the Erythrean Sea. In this work, the unknown merchant describes the activity of
escort-ships assigned to the merchant vessels with valuable cargo. These early naval ships had
some sort of a rudimentary flame-thrower and or a catapult type weapon.
Colandia, the great ships which was used by Early Cholas. By this they sailed to pacific islands from
Kaveripatnam(as center). At that time, Pattinathu Pillai is the chief of the Chola's Navy.
 Medieval Navy
Medieval Navy Little is known about the transition period of around three centuries
from the end of the Sangam age (c. 300) up to the time when the Pandyas and Pallavas
 dominated the Tamil country (c. 600). An obscure dynasty, the Kalabhras, invaded the
Tamil country, displaced the existing kingdoms and ruled for around three centuries.
They were displaced by the Pallavas and the Pandyas in the 6th century.
This period from the 3rd century until the 7th century is a blind spot in the maritime
tradition of the Cholas. Little is known of the fate of the Cholas during the succeeding
three centuries until the accession of Vijayalaya in the second quarter of the 9th
century. In the Interregnum, the Cholas were probably reduced to Vassals of Pallavas,
though at times they switched sides and allied with Pandyas and tried to dispose their
overlords. But, there is no concrete line of kings or court recordings.
However, even during this time the Cholas had maintained a small but potent Naval
force based inland in the Kaveri river. During this time they dominated the inland trade
in the Kaveri basin and Musuri is their major inland port. Dry-docks built during this
period exist to this day.
 Imperial Navy
The Imperial Chola navy took its shape in the aftermath of the resurgence of Chola power, with the rise of 
Vijalaya dynasty. During the Pallavas rule, the Cholas took control of not only the territories, but the
cultural and socio-economic mantle. Thus, the Medieval Cholas inherited the will to dominate trade and
control seas from the Pallavas.
The evolution of combat ships and naval-architecture elsewhere played an important part in the
development of the Pallava Navy. There were serious efforts in the period of the Pallava king Simavishnu
 to control the piracy in South East Asia and to establish a Tamil friendly regime in the Malay peninsula.
However, this effort was accomplished only three centuries later by the new Naval power of the Cholas
The three decades of conflict with the Sinhalese King Mahinda V came to a swift end, after Raja Raja
Chola I's (985-1014) ascent to the throne and his decisive use of the naval flotilla to subdue the Sinhalese.
This period also marked the departure in thinking from the age-old traditions. Rajaraja commissioned
various foreigners (Prominently, the Arabs and Chinese) in the naval building program. These effort were
continued and the benefits were reaped by his successor, Rajendra Chola I. Rajendra led a successful
expedition against the Sri Vijaya kingdom (present day Indonesia) and subdued Sailendra. Though there
were friendly exchanges between the Sri Vijaya empire and the Chola Empire in preceding times
(including the construction of chudamani Pagoda in Nagapattinam), the raid seems to have been
motivated by the commercial interests rather than any political motives.
Trade, Commerce and Diplomacy
Trade, commerce and diplomacyThe Cholas excelled in foreign trade and maritime activity, extending
their influence overseas to China and Southeast Asia. A fragmentary Tamil inscription found in Sumatra
 cites the name of a merchant guild Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar (literally, "the five hundred
from the four countries and the thousand directions"), a famous merchant guild in the Chola
country. The inscription is dated 1088, indicating that there was an active overseas trade during the
Chola period.
Towards the end of the 9th century, southern India had developed extensive maritime and commercial
activity, especially with the Chinese and Arabs. The Cholas, being in possession of parts of both the
west and the east coasts of peninsular India, were at the forefront of these ventures. The Tang dynasty
 of China, the Srivijaya empire in the Malayan archipelago under the Sailendras, and the Abbasid 
caliphate at Baghdad were the main trading partners.
The trade with the Chinese was a very lucrative enterprise, and Trade guilds needed the king's approval
and the license from the customs force/department to embark on overseas voyages for trade. The
normal trade voyage of those day involved three legs of journey, starting with the Indian goods (mainly
spices, cotton and gems) being shipped to China and in the return leg the Chinese goods (silk,
incense,iron) were brought back to Chola ports. After some materials were utilized for local
consumption, the remaining cargo along with Indian cargo was shipped to the Arabs. Traditionally, this
involved transfer of material/cargo to many ships before the ultimate destination was reached
 Combating Piracy In Southeast Asia
Combating Piracy in Southeast AsiaThe Strategic position of Sri Vijaya and Khamboj (modern-day Cambodia)
as a midpoint in the trade route between Chinese and Arabian ports was crucial. Up to the 5th century, the
Arabs traded with Chinese directly using Sri Vijaya as a port of call and replenishment hub. Realizing their
potential, the Sri Vijaya empire began to encourage the sea piracy surrounding the area. The benefits were
twofold, the loot from piracy was a good bounty and it ensured their sovereignty and cooperation from all the
trading parties. Piracy also grew stronger due to a conflict of succession in Sri Vijaya, when two princes fought
for the throne and in turn, relied on the loot from the sea-piracy for their civil war.
The pirate menace grew to unprecedented levels. Sea trade with China was virtually impossible without the
loss of 1/3 of the convoy for every voyage. Even escorted convoys came under attacks, which was a new factor.
Repeated diplomatic missions urged the Sri Vijaya empire to curb the piracy, with little effect. With the rise in
piracy, and in the absence of Chinese commodity, the Arabs, on whom the Cholas were dependent of horses
for their cavalry corps, began to demand high prices for their trade. This led to a slew of reduction in the Chola
army. The Chinese were equally infuriated by the piracy menace, as they too were losing revenue.
The culmination of three century's combined naval traditions of Pallavas and Cholas led to the most known
accomplishment of the Chola Navy (or any Indian power for that matter)., Namely the 1st expedition of the
Chola navy into the Malay peninsula.
In one particular note, the Cholas went as far as to conquer the Kamboja and gave it to the Sri Vijaya kings (as
per their request) to ensure cooperation in the curbing piracy.
 Cooperation with the Chinese
Chinese Song Dynasty reports record that an embassy from Chulian (Chola)
reached the Chinese court in the year 1077, and that the king of the Chulien at
the time was called Ti-hua-kia-lo. It is possible that these syllables denote "Deva
Kulo[tunga]" (Kulothunga Chola I). This embassy was a trading venture and was
highly profitable to the visitors, who returned with '81,800 strings of copper
coins in exchange for articles of tributes, including glass articles, and spices'.
The close diplomatics tie between the Song dynasty of China and the 
Medieval Cholas facilitated many technological innovations to travel both ways.
The more interesting ones to have reached Chinese shores are:
The famous Chola ship-designs employing independent water tight
compartments in the hull of a ship.
The mariner's compass
The continuously shooting flamethrowers for naval warfare
Formation
The Ancient Chola navy was based on trade vessel designs with little
more than boarding implements, though this changed throughout the
history. The later day navy was a specialized force with specially built
ships for each type of combat.
The Imperial Navy of the Medieval Cholas was composed of a
multitude of forces in its command. In addition to the regular navy
(Kappal-Padai), there were many auxiliary forces that could be used in
naval combat. The Chola Navy was an autonomous service unlike
many of its contemporaries. The Army depended on the Naval-fleets
for transportation and logistics. The navy also had a core of marines.
Even saboteurs, who were trained pearl-fishermen ,were used to dive
and disable enemy vessels by destroying or damaging the rudder
The Chola Navy could undertake any of the following combat and non-combat missions,
Peacetime patrol and interdiction of piracy.
Establish a beachhead and or reinforce the army in times of need.
Sabotage of enemy vessels
Cholas to achieve the Military, Political and cultural hegemony over their vast
dominion.During the reign of Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I, there were 5 fleets,
each catering to particular needs. The main fleet was home ported in Nagapatinam. The
other fleets were home ported in Kadalur and a small fleet was also based in
Kanchipuram.
In addition to the main fleets of war ships, there were two fleets of logistics and
transport ships to serve the needs of the army; involved in a bloody war in Ceylon and
later in southeast Asia.
 During the late 11th century, there were a total of nine battle fleets, based in various
dominians across the vast expanses of the Chola empire ranging from the present day
Aceh, Ankorwat to the southern reaches of Ceylon/Sri Lanka.
The navy is organized mostly on role based squadrons
and divisions, containing various types of ships assigned
for a specific role and home-ported in an associated
base/port. This procedure became necessary, especially
after the conquest of Ceylon. Normally, a Ganam (Fleet-
Squadron) would (the largest individual unit)be
commanded by a Ganathipathy (not to be confused with
the elephant headed god Ganapathy).
There were numerous sub-units of operational reasons
and organizational reasons or otherwise. Some are
presented below
Other Naval Forces
Auxiliary Forces :- In addition to the standing navy of the state, there
were other services which had a naval arm of its own. Notable among
them are the customs department, militia and the state monopoly of 
pearl fisheries. In addition to the state services, a small but
formidable forces were maintained by various trade-guilds, these
guilds are highly regulated and acted as mercenaries and
reinforcements in times of need.
Customs ForceThe Customs force, called Sungu (SUNGA ILLAKA) was
highly organized and unlike anything in the ancient world. It was
under the command of a Director-general like position called Thalai-
Thirvai. Thalai - Head, Thirvai - duty (customs). It was highly evolved
and had various departments .
Coast Guard In the later years of the 1100 the navy was constantly battling in many fronts to protect
Chola commercial, religious and political interests. So the home ports were literally, undefended. This
led to a change in Chola naval strategy, the sturdier and larger vessels were repeatedly called to
reinforce the high-sea flotilla, leading to the development of a specialized auxiliary force of fast and
heavily armed light ships in large numbers. The erstwhile Karaipirivu was the natural choice for this
expansion and in time they became an autonomous force vested with the duties of protecting the
Chola territorial waters, home ports, patrol of newly captured ports and coastal cities.
PrivateersThe state's dependence on overseas trade for much valued foreign exchange created the
powerful Trade-guilds, some of which grew more powerful than the regional governors.And in the
increasingly competitive field of international trade, the state faced with difficulties to reinforce and
or rescue stranded Merchant ships in high seas, in a timely manner. This led to the establishment of 
privateer navies. Like its European counterparts, they had no National markings and employed multi-
national crews.
Notable Trade guilds which employed a privateer navy were,
Nanadesa Tisaiyayirattu Ainnutruvar - literally, "the five hundred from the four countries and the
thousand directions"
Maalainattu Thiribuvana Vaanibar kzhulumam - The merchants from the high-country in three
worlds (meaning the 3 domiciles of Chinese, Indian and Arabian empires)
Maadathu valaingair (or valainzhr)vaanibar Kzhu - The pearl exporters form the Kanchipuram
 Ship Types
Ship Types
Even before the accounts of the 1st century BCE, there were written
accounts of shipbuilding and war-craft at sea. Professor R. C.
Majumdar says that there existed a comprehensive book of naval-
architecture in India dating back to the 2nd century BCE, if not earlier.
During the reign of Raja Raja and his son, there were a complex
classification of class of vessels and its utility. Some of the survived
classes' name and utility are below.
Though all ships of the time employed a small Marine force (for
boarding enemy vessels), this class of ship seems to have had a
separate cabins and training area for them. This ship also is said to be
able to engage in asymmetrical warfare.
 Bases, Ports
The most ancient of ports used by Cholas was Poompuhar. Later on, they used many more
ports and even built some new ones. Some of the famous ports are:
Arikamedu
Poombuhar.
Kancheepuram
Nagapattinam
Kulachal
Korkai
Kadalur.
Thoothukudi
In addition to these sea ports there were many inland ports and dry dock connected by Rivers 
Kaveri and Thamarabarani which served commercial fleets and in times of war, to facilitate
mass production, ships were built inland and ferried through the rivers to the Ocean.
Musuri
Worayur or Urayur
 Battles and Campaigns
In the tenure spanning the 700 years of its documented existence, the Chola Navy was
involved in confrontations for probably 500 years. There were frequent skirmishes and many
pitched battles. Not to mention long campaigns and expeditions. The 5th centuries of
conflict between the Pandyas and Cholas for the control of the peninsula gave rise to many 
legends and folktales. Not to mention the heros in both sides. The notable campaigns are
below.
War of Pandya Succession (1172)
War of Pandya succession (1167)
The destruction of the Bali fleet (1148)
Sea battle of the Kalinga Campaighn (1081-1083)
The second expedition of Sri Vijaya (1031-1034)
The first expedition of Sri Vijaya (1027-1029)
The Annexation of Kedah (1024-1025)
Annexation of the Kamboja (?-996)
The invasion of Ceylon/Sri Lanka.(977-?)
Skirmishes with Pallava Navy (903-8)
 Political, Cultural And Economic Impact

The Grand vision and imperial energy of the Father and son duo Raja Raja
Chola I and Rajendra Chola I is undoubtedly the underlying reason for
expansion and prosperity. But, this was accomplished by the tireless efforts
and pains of the navy. In essence, Raja Raja was the first person in the sub-
continent to realize the power projection capabilities of a powerful navy. He
and his successors initiated a massive naval buildup and continued supporting
it, and they used it more than just wars.
The Chola navy was a potent diplomatic symbol, the carrier of Chola might and
prestige. It spread Dravidian culture, its literary and architectural grandeur. For
the sake of comparison, it was the equivalent of the " Gunboat diplomacy " of
the modern-day Great powers and super powers.
There is evidence to show that the king of Kambujadesa (modern Cambodia)
sent an ornamental chariot to the Chola Emperor, probably to appease him to
limit his strategic attention to the Malay peninsula.