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Environmental Science & Disaster Management
Environmental Science & Disaster Management
Environmental Science & Disaster Management
&
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
MODULE 2
CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM
• An ecosystem is therefore defined as a natural functional
ecological unit comprising of living organisms and their
nonliving environment that interact to form a stable self
supporting system .
• E.g.. Pond, lake, desert, grassland, forest, etc.
• The living community of plants and animals in any area
together with the nonliving components of the environment
such as soil, air and water, constitute the ecosystem.
• Natural ecosystems include the forests, grasslands, deserts,
and aquatic ecosystems such as ponds, rivers, lakes, and the
sea. Man modified ecosystems include agricultural land and
urban or industrial land use patterns. Each ecosystem has a set
of common features that can be observed in the field
Types of ecosystem
1. Natural
– Terrestrial ecosystem
– Aquatic ecosystem
• Lentic, the ecosystem of a lake, pond or swamp.
• Lotic, the ecosystem of a river, stream or spring.
2. Artificial
• Ecosystems can be broadly divided into two main categories
as terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.
• The biosphere’s major terrestrial or land ecosystems such as
grasslands, forests and deserts are called biomes .
• Major ecosystems that are associated with water such as
ponds, lakes, rivers, estuaries, oceans, coastal and inland
wetlands etc., are collectively termed aquatic ecosystems .
• Some of the aquatic ecosystems contain fresh water, but
others may be saline.
• Examples of natural ecosystems can be found easily if you
look around carefully. Your home garden itself is an
ecosystem. On the other hand, you must remember that all
ecosystems are not natural.
• An aquarium for an example is a man–made system. In fact,
most of us live in highly modified ecosystems such as large
metropolis, farms, and villages
Biomes
• Biomes are a classification of globally similar areas,
including ecosystems, such as
ecological communities of plants and animals,
soil organisms and climatic conditions.
• A fundamental classification of biomes is:
Terrestrial (land) biomes.
Freshwater biomes.
Marine biomes.
• Ecology is the study of the relationship
between organisms and the environment and
the interrelationships between organisms.
• The response of an organism to the
environment is determined by the effects of
the environment on the processes in the
organism.
• Structure of Ecosystem
• An ecosystem has two major components:
which are abiotic componenets (Non-living)
and biotic component (living component) as
shown in the Figure below
• Abiotic Component:- The abiotic components that
form the physical environment of an ecosystem
include factors such as energy, elements, inorganic
compounds, dead organic matter and climate.
• As you are aware natural ecosystems are fuelled by
the energy of the sun, which includes both heat and
light. The energy of the sun is the driving force for all
the processes within the ecosystem.
• The inorganic elements and compounds found in the
ecosystem consist of all nutrients such as nitrates,
phosphates and sulphates, water, carbon dioxide and
oxygen etc.
• These inorganic substances affect all biological
activities i.e. growth, reproduction etc. of organisms.
• There are about fourty elements that are required in
various processes of living organisms. Some of these
are macronutrients, which the plants need, in
relatively large amounts and others are micronutrients
that are required in trace amounts.
• There are nine macronutrients: carbon, hydrogen and
oxygen (the three elements found in all organic
compounds), and nitrogen, potassium, calcium,
phosphorus, magnesium, and sulphur. Some
examples of micronutrients are: iron, chlorine,
copper, manganese, zinc, molybdenum and boron.
• The organic compounds that form a part of the abiotic
components are largely the by products resulting from the
different activities of organisms or their death and decay.
• All inactive or dead organic matter and dissolved organic
matter are derived either from plants or animals. Such dead
organic matter is critical to the internal cycling of nutrients in
an ecosystem.
• Decomposing organic matter releases nutrients along with the
formation of humus, which is important for the fertility of
soil . New humus is added as old humus gets converted into
mineral elements. Now it should be clear to you that it is in
this abiotic background that organisms interact in, forming a
single interactive system.
• Biotic Component
• The biotic components of ecosystems include
the plants, animals and microbes i.e., total
living community. They can be classified into
two main groups of organisms
(i) The autotrophs (producers)
(ii) The heterotrophs (consumers and
decomposers)
Heterotrophs
• The heterotrophs do not produce their own food.
• They depend on the producers directly or indirectly
to obtain their energy requirements.
• The heterotrophs include two groups of organisms,
namely consumers and decomposers.
• The consumers are those that feed on the living
tissues of plants or animals or both.
• Based on this there are three types of consumers:
1. Herbivores, or primary consumers.
FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM
•The function of an ecosystem is a broad, vast and often
confused topic. The function of an ecosystem can be best
studied by understanding the history of ecological studies.
•The function of an ecosystem can be studied under the three
heads.
1. Tropic Level Interaction
2. Ecological Succession
3. Biogeochemistry
•Tropic Level Interaction deals with how the members of an
ecosystem are connected based on nutritional needs.
• Pyramid of numbers
Hyperparasites (microbes)
Hawks
Birds
Insects
Trees
Grasses
Standard Ecological pyramid
Pyramid of biomass
•The pyramid of biomass is comparatively more
realistic than the pyramid of numbers.
•If the numbers of consumers at each tropic
level are multiplied by their weight, then, what
we obtain is the pyramid of biomass.
•It indicates by weight or other measurement
the total living material in each feeding level at
any one time.
Pyramid of energy
•Of the ecological pyramids, the energy pyramid gives
the best picture of the overall nature of an ecosystem.
The pyramid of energy is based on the total energy
content of each trophic level. The total energy content
of each trophic level depends on the following factors.
•They are the amount of energy that
a) Individuals take in (or quantity of energy fixed)
b) Burn up during metabolism(or quantity of energy
used)
c) Remains in their waste product (or quantity of
energy passed) and
d) Individuals store in bodies (or quantity of energy
stored)
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
•Over the course of years it is observed that in nature
one biotic community gradually gives way to a second,
the second perhaps to a third, and even the third to a
fourth.
•This phenomenon of transaction from one biotic
community to another is called ecological or natural
succession.
•Succession occurs because the physical may be
gradually modified by the growth of the biotic
community itself, such that the area becomes more
favourable to another group of species and less
favourable to the present occupants.
Primary succession
•If the area has not been occupied previously,
the process of initial invasion and then the
progression from one biotic community, to the
next is termed "Primary Succession".
• An example is the gradual invasion of a bare
rock surface by what eventually becomes a
climax forest ecosystem.
Secondary Succession
•When an area has been cleared by fire or by humans
and then left alone, the surrounding ecosystem may
gradually reinvade the area- not at once, but through a
series of distinct stages termed secondary succession.
•The major difference between primary and secondary
succession is that secondary succession starts with the
preexisting soil substance.
•Therefore, the early prolonged stages of soil building
are bypassed.
Aquatic Succession
•Another example of natural succession is seen as lakes
or ponds are gradually filled and taken over by the
surrounding terrestrial ecosystem. This process occurs
because a certain quantity of soil particles inevitably
erodes from the land and settled out in ponds or lakes,
gradually filling them. Aquatic vegetation produces
detritus that also contributes the filling process.
• As the buildup occurs, terrestrial species can advance,
and aquatic species move further out into the lake. In
short, the shoreline gradually advances towards the
centre of the lake until, finally the lake disappears
altogether.
• FOREST ECOSYSTEM
• Forests are formed by a community of plants by which is
predominantly structurally defined by its trees, shrubs,
climbers and ground cover. Natural vegetation looks vastly
different from a group of planted trees, which are in orderly
rows. Each forest type forms a habitat for a specific
community of animals that are adapted to live in it.
• A forest is more than just the trees. A single forest is a
complete, functioning ecosystem that supports innumerable
plant and animal species as well as earth, water, and air
subsystems. The sub systems provide the essence of life of the
forest and are in themselves a byproduct of forest systems, all
of which are reciprocal and interdependent.
• A forest ecosystem is a complex of living and non-living
elements which interrelate. An ecosystem can be small (like
your backyard) or large (like the planet earth). It depends on
the range of individual species or group of species being
discussed (e.g.: a salmonstock or a forest type), geology (e.g.:
a mountain range or watershed),and other issues.
• Types of Forest ecosystem
• The forest biomes of the world have been
classified into the three major categories:
• Coniferous forest
• Tropical forest and
• Temperate forest.
• All these forest biomes are generally arranged
on a gradient from north to south or from
high to lower altitude.
Types of Forest ecosystem
• Coniferous:- e.g. Himalayan region -needle
–like leave forests.
• Tropical rain forests :-e.g. Western Ghats –
broad–leaved forest.
• Deciduous forests:– e.g. Teak trees
• Thorn forests:– e.g. Semi – arid.
• Mangrove forests :– e.g. River deltas
• Coniferous forest :
• Cold regions with high rainfall and strongly
seasonal climates with long winters and fairly
short summers are characterised by boreal
coniferous forest which is transcontinental.
• For example, adjacent to Tundra regions
either at latitude or high altitude is the
northern coniferous forest, which stretches
across both north America and Eurasia just
south of Tundra (i.e. Canada, Sweden, Finland
and Siberia).
• Temperate deciduous forest
• The temperate forests are characterised by a
moderate climate and broad-leafed deciduous
trees, which shed their leaves in fall, are bare
over winter and grow new foliage in the
spring.
• These forests are characteristic of north
America, Europe, Eastern Asia, Chile, part of
Australia and Japan, with a cold winter and an
annual rainfall of 75-150 cm. and a 56
temperature of 10-20°C.
• The precipitation may be fairly uniform
throughout year.
• TEMPERATE EVERGREEN FOREST
• Many parts of the world have a Mediterranean
type of climate which is characterized by warm,
dry summers and cool, moist winters.
• These are commonly inhabitant by low evergreen
trees having broad leaves.
• In a woodland, trees are essentially lacking
although shrubs may range up to 3-4m in height.
Fire is an important hazardous factor in this
‘ecosystem and the adaptation of the plants
enable them to regenerate quickly after being
burnt.
• The characteristic animals of temperate
evergreen woodland chaparral are mule, deer,
orush rabbit, wood rat, chipmunk, lizard, etc
• TEMPERATE RAIN FORESTS
• The temperate rain forests are colder than any other
rain forest and exhibit a marked seasonality with
regard to temperature and rainfall.
• Rainfall is high, but fog may be very heavy which may
actually represent a more important source of water
than rainfall itself.
• The biotic diversity of temperate rain forests is high
as compared to temperate forest
• However, the diversity of plant and animals is much
low as compared to their warmer counterparts. The
temperate of rain forests are similar to those of
deciduous forests, but show a somewhat high
diversity.
• TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS
• Tropical rain forests occur near the equator.
• Tropical rain forests are among the most
diverse communities on the earth.
• Both temperature and humidity remain high
and more or less uniform.
• The annual rainfall exceeds 200-225 cm and is
generally distributed throughout the year.
• TROPICAL SEASONAL FORESTS
• Tropical seasonal forests occur in regions where total
annual rainfall is very high but segregated into
pronounced wet and dry periods.
• This kind of forests is found in South East Asia,
central and south America, northern Australia,
western Africa and tropical islands of the pacific as
well as India.
• In exceedingly wet tropical seasonal forests,
commonly known as monsoon forests, the annual
precipitation may be several times that of the
tropical rain forests.
• SUBTROPICAL RAIN FORESTS
• In regions of fairly high rainfall but less
temperature differences between winter and
summer and broad-leaved evergreen
subtropical biome is found.
• The vegetation includes mahogany, gumbo-
limbo, bays, palms, oaks, magnolias, tamarind,
all laden with epiphytes (of pineapple and
orchid families), ferns, vines .
• Animal life of subtropical forest is very similar
to that of tropical rainforests
• Structure and functions of Forest Ecosystem
• Different organisms exist within the forest layers.
• These organisms interact with each other and their
surrounds.
• Each organism has a role or niche in sustaining the
ecosystem.
• Some provide food for other organisms, other
provide shelter or control populations through
predation. It consists of two parts:
• 1. Abiotic and
• 2. Biotic component.
The nonliving or abiotic aspects of the forest
All inorganic, organic substances present in the environment and
minerals present in the forest constitute the abiotic components.
The type of forest depends upon the abiotic conditions at the site.
Forests on mountains and hills differ from those along river
valleys. Vegetation is specific to the amount of rainfall and the
local temperature which varies according to latitude and altitude.
Forests also vary in their plant communities in response to the type
of soil. In short abiotic components are as follows:
These include basic inorganic & organic compounds present in the
soil & atmosphere.
In addition dead organic debris is also found littered in forests.
1. Example of Abiotic Component
Amount of rainfall and local temperature varies according to
latitude, and altitude.
• The living or the biotic aspects of the forest
• The biotic component consists of all living things of
the environment which constitute producers,
consumers and decomposers.
• The plants and animals form communities that are
specific to each forest type.
• Example of Biotic Component
• Plants – trees, shrubs, climbers and ground cover.
• Animals – mammals, birds, reptiles amphibians, fish
insects and microscopic animals.
• .
• Producers of Forest ecosystem
• All living organisms intake energy in order to survive.
• In a forest ecosystem, trees and other plants get
their energy from sunlight.
• Plants produce their own food, in the form of
carbohydrates.
• Plants are, therefore, called the primary producers,
since they produce the basic food stuffs for other
organisms within food chains and foodwebs.
• Photosynthesis is the chemical reaction that allows
plants to produce their own food.
• Consumers of Forest ecosystem
• Animals cannot produce their own food.
• They must consume food sources for the energy they need to
survive.
• All animas,including mammals, insects, and birds are called
consumers.
• Consumers rely on plants and other animals as a food source.
• Primary consumes only eat plants and are referred to as
herbivores.
• Second consumers are referred to as carnivores and feed on
herbivores.
• Tertiary consumers are carnivores that feed on other
carnivores.
• Omnivores eat both plant and animal matter.
• In other words in a forest there are three types of consumers
as follows:
i) Primary Consumers
These are Herbivores which feed directly on producers.
Eg ; Ants, Beetles, Bugs, spiders etc. feeding on tree
leaves.
Larger animals such as Elephants, Deer, giraffe etc.
grazing on shoots and/or fruits of trees.
(ii) Secondary Consumers
These are carnivores and feed on primary consumers.
Eg: Birds, Lizards, Frogs, Snakes and Foxes.
iii) Tertiary Consumers
These are secondary carnivores and feed on secondary
consumers.
These include top carnivores like Lion, Tiger.
iv) Decomposers
• Leaves, needless, and old branches fall to the
forest floor as trees grow. Eventuality all
plants and animals die. These materials are
decomposed by worms, microbes, fungi, ants,
and other bugs. Decomposers break these
items down into their smallest primary
elements to be used again. Decomposers are
important in they sustain the nutrient cycle of
ecosystems.
These include wide variety of saprotrophic
micro- organism like;
i)Bacteria ii)Fungi iii) Actinomycetes
(Streptomyces).
• Characteristics of a forest ecosystem
1. Forest has warm climate with adequate rain fall.
2. Forest have well defined seasons of about equal
length.
3. Forest protect biodiversity.
4. Forest has tall and dense trees with many wild
animals within ecosystem.
5. The soil of forest is rich in organic matter and
nutrients.
6. Forest grow very slowly.
7. Forests provide various resources for human life.
Grassland Ecosystems
• Grasslands cover areas where rainfall is usually low
and/or the soil depth and quality is poor.
• The low rainfall prevents the growth of a large number
of trees and shrubs, but is sufficient to support the
growth of grass cover during the monsoon.
• Many of the grasses and other small herbs become dry
and the part above the ground dies during the summer
months.
• In the next monsoon the grass cover grows back from
the root stock and the seeds of the previous year.
• This change gives grasslands a highly seasonal
appearance with periods of increased growth followed
by a dormant phase.
• Grassland ecosystem has the following features:
Grasslands (also called Greenswards) are areas where
the vegetation is dominated by grasses and other herbaceous
(non-woody) plants.
Grasslands occupy about 24% of the earth’s surface.
Grasslands occur in regions too dry for forests and too moist for
deserts
The annual rainfall ranges between 25- 75 cm, Usually seasonal
The principal grasslands include:
• Prairies (Canada, USA),Pampas (South America),Steppes
(Europe & Asia ) Veldts (Africa)
• The highest abundance & greatest diversity of large mammals
are found in these ecosystems.
• The dominant animal species include Wild horses, asses &
antelope of Eurasia,
• Herds of Bison of America; and
• The antelope & other large herbivores of Africa
• Types of Grasslands
1.Xerophilous grasslands :-These are found in the
dry regions of North- West India under semi-
desert conditions.
2. Mesophilous grasslands:- It is termed as
Savannas, include the extensive grassy banks
typical moist deciduous forest of Utter Pradesh
3. Hygrophilous grass lands:- It is termed as wet
Savannas and are found in marshy areas
The Grassland ecosystem