Image Classification

Image Classification

The process of sorting pixels into a finite number of individual classes,

or categories of data, based on their spectral response (the measured
brightness of a pixel across the image bands, as reflected by the pixel’s
spectral signature).

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Spectral Signatures

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 Image Classification

The underlying assumption of image classification is that spectral

response of a particular feature (i.e., land-cover class) will be
relatively consistent throughout the image.

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General Approaches to Image Classification

1. Unsupervised
2. Supervised

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Unsupervised Classification

• Unsupervised classification (a.k.a., “clustering”) identifies groups

of pixels that exhibit a similar spectral response
• These spectral classes are then assigned “meaning” by the analyst
(e.g., assigned to land-cover categories)

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Supervised Classification

Supervised classification uses image pixels representing regions of

known, homogenous surface composition -- training areas -- to classify
unknown pixels.

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 Unsupervised vs. Supervised Classification

Unsupervised: bulk of analyst’s work comes after the classification

process
Supervised: bulk of analyst’s work comes before the classification
process

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of Unsupervised Classification?

Advantages
 No prior knowledge of the image area is required
 Human error is minimized
 Unique spectral classes are produced
 Relatively fast and easy to perform

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Disadvantages of Unsupervised Classification

 Spectral classes do not represent features on the ground

 Does not consider spatial relationships in the data
 Can be very time consuming to interpret spectral classes
 Spectral properties vary over time, across images

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Process of Unsupervised Classification

1. Determine a general classification scheme

2. Assign pixels to spectral classes (ISODATA)

3. Assign spectral classes to informational classes

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Process of Unsupervised Classification

1. Determine a general classification scheme

• Depends upon the purpose of the classification
• With unsupervised classification, the scheme does not need to
be very specific

2. Assign pixels to spectral classes (ISODATA)

3. Assign spectral classes to informational classes

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Process of Unsupervised Classification

1. Determine a general classification scheme

2. Assign pixels to spectral classes (ISODATA)
• Group pixels into groups of similar values based on pixel value
relationships in multi-dimensional feature space (clustering)
• Iterative ISODATA technique is the most common

3. Assign spectral classes to informational classes

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Feature Space

• Multi-dimensional relationship of the pixel values of multiple

image bands across the radiometric range of the image
• Allows software to examine the statistical relationship between
image bands

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Feature Space Plot

• Feature space images represent two-

dimensional plots of pixel values in two
image bands (with 8-bit data, in a 255 by 255
feature space)
• The greater the frequency of unique pairs of
values, the brighter the feature space
• Distribution of pixels within the spectral
space at bright locations, correspond with
important land-cover types

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ISODATA

• “Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis Technique”

• Uses “spectral distance” between image pixels in feature space to
classify pixels into a specified number of unique spectral groups (or
“clusters”)

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ISODATA Parameters & Guidelines

• Number of clusters: 10 to 15 per desired

land cover class
• Convergence threshold: percentage of
pixels whose class values should not
change between iterations; generally
set to 95%

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ISODATA Parameters & Guidelines

• A convergence threshold of 95%

indicates that processing will cease as
soon as 95% or more of the pixels stay
the same from one iteration to the next
(or 5% or fewer pixels change)
• Processing stops when the # of
iterations or convergence threshold is
reached (whichever comes first)

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ISODATA Parameters & Guidelines

• Maximum number of iterations: ideally,

the convergence threshold should be
reached
• Should set “reasonable” parameters so
that convergence is reached before
iterations run out

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ISODATA

a) ISODATA initial distribution

of five hypothetical mean
vectors using +/- 1 standard
deviation in both bands as
beginning and ending points.

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ISODATA

b) In the first iteration, each

candidate pixel is compared to
each cluster mean and
assigned to the cluster whose
mean is closest

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ISODATA

c) During the second iteration, a

new mean is calculated for each
cluster based on the actual
spectral locations of the pixels
assigned to each cluster.
After the new cluster mean
vectors are selected, every pixel
in the scene is assigned to one of
the new clusters

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ISODATA

d) This split-merge-assign
process continues until there
is little change in class
assignment between iterations
(the threshold is reached) or
the maximum number of
iterations is reached

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 ISODATA

 ISODATA iterations;
pixels assigned to
clusters with closest
spectral mean; mean
recalculated; pixels
reassigned
 Continues until
maximum iterations
or convergence
threshold reached

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Process of Unsupervised Classification

1. Determine a general classification scheme

2. Assign pixels to spectral classes (ISODATA)

3. Assign spectral classes to informational classes

 Once the spectral clusters in the image are identified, the
analyst must assign them to the “informational” classes of the
classification scheme (i.e., land cover)

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Spectral to Informational Classes

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Spectral to Informational Classes

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Example: Image to be Classified

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Example: Image to be Classified

 Multiple clusters
likely represent a
single type of
“feature” on the
ground.
 Someone needs to
assign a landcover
class to all of these
clusters; can be
difficult and time
consuming.

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 General Approaches to Image Classification

1. Unsupervised
2. Supervised

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 Supervised Classification

Supervised classification uses image pixels representing regions of

known, homogenous surface composition -- training areas -- to classify
unknown pixels.

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 Supervised Classification

The underlying assumption is that spectral response of a particular

feature (i.e., land-cover class) will be relatively consistent throughout
the image.

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 Advantages

 Generates informational classes representing features on the ground

 Training areas are reusable (assuming they do not change; e.g.
roads)

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 Disadvantages

 Information classes may not match spectral classes

(e.g., a supervised classification of “forest” may mask the unique spectral
properties of pine and oak stands that comprise that forest)
 Homogeneity of information classes varies
 Difficulty and cost of selecting training sites
 Training areas may not encompass unique spectral classes

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 Process of Supervised Classification

1. Determine a classification scheme

2. Create training areas
3. Generate training area signatures

4. Evaluate and refine signatures

5. Assign pixels to classes using a classifier (a.k.a., “decision rule”)

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1 | Determine Classification Scheme

• Depends upon the purpose of the classification

• Make the scheme as specific as resources and available reference
data allow
You can always generalize your classification scheme to make it less
specific; making it more specific involves starting over

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2 | Create Training Areas

 Digitizing: drawing polygons around areas in the image

 Seeding: “grows” areas based on spectral similarity to seed pixel
 Using existing data: existing maps, field data (GPS, etc.), high-
resolution imagery
 Feature space image training areas

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Training Area methods

Method Advantages Disadvantages

High degree of control; May overestimate class
Digitizing can incorporate additional variance; relatively time
imagery consuming

May underestimate class

Seeding Auto-assisted; fast
variance

Precise map coordinates; May overestimate class

Existing data represents known ground variance; data can be
information difficult & costly to collect

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Digitizing

Selecting
ROIs

Alfalfa

Cotton

Grass
Fallow

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Seeding

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 Training Areas “Best Practices”

 Number of pixels > 100 per class

 Individual training sites should be between 10 to 40 pixels
 Sites should be dispersed throughout the image
 Uniform and homogeneous sites

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3 | Generate Training Areas Signatures

• Signatures represent the collective spectral properties of all the

training areas defined for a particular class
• the most important step in supervised classification

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 Types of Signatures

1. Parametric: signature that is based on statistical parameters (e.g.,

mean) of the pixels that are in the training area (normal
distribution assumption)

2. Non-parametric: signature that is not based on statistics, but on

discrete objects (polygons or rectangles) in a feature space image

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Parametric Signatures

e.g., mean of the pixels

that are in the training
area

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Parametric Signatures

e.g., mean of the

pixels that are in the
training area

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Non-Parametric Signatures

e.g., polygons in a
feature space

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4 | Evaluate and Refine Signatures
• Attempt to reduce or eliminate overlapping, non-homogeneous,
non-representative signatures
• Signatures should be as “spectrally distinct” as possible

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 Some Signature Evaluation Methods

 Ellipse evaluation (feature space)

 Contingency matrices
 Training area histograms
 Signature plots

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Ellipse Evaluation

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 Contingency Matrix

Contingency analysis produces a matrix showing the percentage of

pixels that are classified correctly in a preliminary image
classification of only the training areas
 It assumes that most of the training area pixels should be assigned to their
respective land-cover class
 If a significant percentage of training pixels are classified as another land-
cover, it indicates that the spectral signatures are not distinct enough to
produce an accurate classification of the entire image

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Contingency Matrix

Actual Land-
cover
Classified Mixed Mixed Mixed
Land-cover Pine Pine Oak Fir Grass Scrub Agricult UnVeg
Pine 101 96 1 2 0 0 0 0
Mixed Pine 24 213 3 2 0 0 0 0
Mixed Oak 4 23 19 0 0 0 0 0
Mixed Fir 7 25 0 64 0 0 0 0
Grass 0 0 0 0 90 1 9 55
Scrub 0 0 0 0 2 31 0 0
Agricult. 0 0 0 0 2 0 213 57
UnVeg 0 0 0 0 5 0 14 997
Column 136 357 23 68 99 32 236 1109
Total
% Correct 74.3% 59.7% 82.6% 94.1% 90.9% 96.9% 90.3% 89.9%

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Training Area Histograms

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Signature Plots

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 Signature Refinement Methods

 Refine training area boundaries

 Add/delete training areas
 Modify classification scheme/merge signatures

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Merge Signatures

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Merge Signatures

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5 | Assign Pixels to Classes

• Each pixel is independently compared to each signature relative to

the selected classification criteria, or “decision rule”
• Pixels that satisfy the criteria for a class signature are assigned to
that class

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 Classification “Decision Rules”

 Parametric: image is classified based on a statistical representation of the

data derived from the training area signatures; all image pixels are
classified
Parametric classifiers are “comprehensive”; they assign every pixel
in an image to a class (regardless of how well that pixel fits into the
classification scheme)

 Non-parametric: pixels are classified as objects in feature space; only

those pixels within the feature space object are classified

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 Non-Parametric “Decision Rules”

 Parallelepiped
 Feature space

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 Parallelepiped Classifier

The pixels values are compared to upper and lower limits of each
signature class (i.e., the min/max pixel values in each band, or the
mean of each band +/- 2 standard deviations)

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Parallelepiped Classifier

leave them
unclassified
or classify
them using a
parametric
classifier

• If the pixel value lies above the low

threshold and below the high threshold
for all n bands evaluated, it is assigned
to that class
• When an unknown pixel does not
satisfy any of the criteria, it is assigned
to an unclassified category
• We can visually see the two-
dimensional box, but this could be
extended to n dimensions.

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 Parallelepiped Classifier

• Landsat TM training statistics for five

classes measured in bands 4 and 5
displayed as cospectral parallelepipeds.
• The upper and lower limit of each
parallelepiped is ±1s, superimposed on a
feature space plot of bands 4 and 5.
• Band 4: confusion between class 1 and 4
• Band 5: confusion between class 3 and 4
• Both band 4 and 5: separate all 5 classes
at ±1s

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 Parallelepiped Classifier

 Advantages: fast; good for non-normal distributions; can limit

classification to specific land cover
 Disadvantages: classes can include pixels spectrally distant from the
signature mean; does not incorporate variability; not all pixels are
classified; allows class overlap

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 Feature Space Classifier

Classifies pixels that fall within non-parametric signatures identified

in the feature space image not used very often because it is difficult to
accurately create and evaluate non-parametric signatures

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Feature Space Classifier

non-
parametric
signatures
you decide
how they
are handled

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 Feature Space Classifier

 Advantages: good for non-normal distributions and multi-modal

signatures (that include many land cover features)
 Disadvantages: feature space images are difficult to interpret;
allows class overlap

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 Parametric “Decision Rules”

 Minimum distance
 Maximum likelihood

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Minimum Distance Classifier

Classifies pixels based on the spectral distance between the candidate

pixel and the mean value of each signature (class) in each image band

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Minimum Distance Classifier

mean value of
each class

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Minimum Distance Classifier

• The vectors (arrows)

represent the distance
from candidate pixels a
and b to the mean of
all classes in a
minimum distance to
means classification
algorithm
• Pixel a – Forest
• Pixel b - Wetland

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 Minimum Distance Classifier

 Advantages: fast; no unclassified pixels

 Disadvantages: does not incorporate variability of signatures
 In most cases, a maximum likelihood classifier is a better choice

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 Maximum Likelihood Classifier

• Classifies pixels based on the probability that a pixel falls within a

certain class
• If you know that the probabilities are not equal for all classes, you
can specify weight factors
 For example, if you know that a large percentage of a particular image
area is forested, you may want to weight that class with a higher
probability than other classes

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Maximum Likelihood Classifier

• Probability of an
unknown pixel being
one of the classes
• If an unknown pixel has
brightness values within
the wetland region, it
has a high probability of
being wetland

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Maximum Likelihood Classifier

pixel X would be
assigned to forest
because the probability
is greater for forest
than for agriculture.

Minimum distance
classifier - Agriculture

The ellipses represent

standard deviations
from the mean

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 Maximum Likelihood Classifier

 Advantages: most accurate; considers variability

 Disadvantages: slow; relies heavily on normally distributed
signatures

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Example: Image to be Classified

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Training Data Selection

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Supervised Classification Results

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Unsupervised classification, The
computer or algorithm automatically
group pixels with similar spectral
characteristics (means, standard
deviations, covariance matrices,
correlation matrices, etc.) into unique
clusters according to some statistically
determined criteria. The analyst then
re-labels and combines the spectral
clusters into information classes.
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Supervised classification. Identify known
a priori through a combination of
fieldwork, map analysis, and personal
experience as training sites; the spectral
characteristics of these sites are used to
train the classification algorithm for
eventual land-cover mapping of the
remainder of the image. Every pixel both
within and outside the training sites is then
evaluated and assigned to the class of
which it has the highest likelihood of being
a member.
 Final Thoughts on Supervised Classification

 Accuracy vs. Precision

 Land cover vs. land use

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Accuracy & Precision

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Accuracy & Precision

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Accuracy & Precision

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Accuracy & Precision

Relationship between the level of

detail required and the spatial
resolution of representative
remote sensing systems for
vegetation inventories.

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Land Cover vs. Land Use

• Land cover refers to the type of material present on the landscape (e.g.,
water, sand, crops, forest, wetland, human-made materials such as
asphalt).

• Land use refers to what people do on the land surface (e.g., agriculture,
commerce, settlement).

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Land Cover vs. Land Use

The U.S. Geological Survey’s

Land-Use/Land-Cover Classification
System for Use with Remote Sensor
Data

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Hard vs. Fuzzy Classification
 Supervised and unsupervised classification algorithms
typically use hard classification logic to produce a
classification map that consists of hard, discrete categories
(e.g., forest, agriculture).

 Fuzzy classification logic, takes into account the

heterogeneous and imprecise nature (mix pixels) of the real
world.
Proportion of the m classes within a pixel (e.g., 10% bare soil,
10% shrub, 80% forest). Fuzzy classification schemes are not
currently standardized.

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 Pixel-based vs. Object-oriented Classification
 Processing the entire scene pixel by pixel. This is commonly
referred to as per-pixel (pixel-based) classification.

 Object-oriented classification techniques allow the analyst to

decompose the scene into many relatively homogenous image
objects (referred to as patches or segments) using a multi-
resolution image segmentation process
 Object-oriented classification based on image segmentation is
often used for the analysis of high-spatial-resolution imagery
(e.g., 1  1 m Space Imaging IKONOS and 0.61  0.61 m Digital
Globe QuickBird)

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