Slope Stabilization Methods

Slope Stabilization Methods
Module 3
• Stabilization aims to:
– Increase resisting forces,
– Reducing driving forces or both.
• Driving forces reduced by
– excavation of material from unstable portion of
slope
– drainage to restrict hydrostatic forces.
2
• Resisting forces increased by:
– Drainage
• Increases shear strength of slope.
– Elimination of weak strata or other potential
failure zones.
– Build retaining structures
– Soil reinforcements
– Chemical treatment to increase shear strength
3
Unloading
• Reduces driving forces within a slide mass
• Performed at the head of a slide
• Use of light-weight fill material for
embankment formation reduces driving
force.
4
Unloading - Excavation
• Excavation is a common method for
increasing the stability of a slope by
reducing the driving forces that contribute
to movements.
• This can include reduces driving forces
– Removing weight from upper part of slope
– Removing unstable materials
– Flattening of slopes
– benching
5
• Some disadvantages are
– costs linked to accessibility (as the slope must
usually be excavated from the top downward),
– implementing and maintaining safety measures
for protection of workers and equipment,
– disposal of excavated materials unless they can
be used for local construction, and
– right-of-way acquisition that may pose
economic and legal problems.
• The main advantage of excavation is low
cost.
6
• Removal of the Head of a Slide
• With this method, large quantities of
materials are taken from the head of a slope.
• This method is usually applied to existing
failures.
• Removal of soil from the head of a landslide
reduces the driving forces and tends to
balance the failure.
7
8
• This leads to permanent solutions so long as
the excavation drainage receives careful
attention.
• Because quantity of soil or rock to be
removed depends on nature and
engineering characteristics of ground
encountered, it is very difficult to estimate
accurately prior to construction.
9
• As a general guideline, one to two times the
quantity originally removed at the toe of the
slope during construction should be
excavated from the head.
10
• Total Removal of All Unstable or
Potentially Unstable Materials
• There are practical limitations based on the
complete removal of a slide depending on
the volume of the moving mass and space
availability.
• In most cases, the location of other
structures and existing property lines
prevent the use of this method.
• The effect of excavation on area drainage
must also be considered. 11
• Flattening of Slopes
• Flattening of slopes is one of the most
widely applied and economical methods for
improving slope stability.
• Often, it is the first option to be considered
when stabilizing a slope.
• As with all methods, it is not universal and
its effectiveness can vary from one case to
another.
12
13
• Figure illustrates the increase in slope stability
that results from flattening a cut slope.
• Flattening the slope not only reduces sum of the
driving force, but also tends to force the failure
surface deeper into ground.
• Deeper ground is often firmer because of less
weathering, less dissipation of residual stresses
through expansion, and higher normal effective
pressure if the slide plane has frictional
strength characteristics
14
15
• The mechanism of flattening an embankment
slope is quite different from that of a cut slope.
• Figure 7.3a illustrates an embankment where
the critical failure circle originally
corresponded to a base failure (L1).
• By flattening the embankment slope, a new
critical circle (L2) is obtained.
16
• In this case, the change lengthens the failure
surface and increases the resisting forces
because the shear strength is distributed over a
wider area.
• Calculations must be made to assess the extent
of improvement gained by flattening the
embankment slope.
17
• Figure 7.3b illustrates the flattening of an
embankment slope where the critical circle
passes through toe of the slope.
• The new critical circle radius becomes larger,
thereby enhancing stability since shearing
resistance is proportional to the length of the
failure surface.
18
• Figure 7.3c illustrates the contributing effect of
slope flattening on a translational failure.
• The slope flattening increases the length of the
failure surface within the weak stratum to
create more sliding resistance.
• In a frictional stratum, the weight of fill will
cause shear resistance to increase because it is
proportional to the normal stress.
19
• Benching of Slopes
• Benching of Slopes Figure 7.4a and b show two
typically benched slopes, one in cohesive soils
and the other in soils with cohesive and
frictional strength.
• The purpose of benching a slope is to transform
the behavior of one high slope into several
lower ones.
• For this reason, the bench should be sufficiently
wide.
20
21
• For slopes with cohesive and frictional
strengths, the chief objective is to flatten the
slope.
• In sloping ground, benching will result in higher
overall slopes and greater excavation quantities
overall(Figure 7.4c).
• Benching will reduce subsequent maintenance
costs and thereby offset increased construction
costs.
22
23
• Benching of slopes is also used to control
erosion and to establish vegetation.
• The vertical heights of benches are typically
about 25 to 30 feet.
• Each bench should have drainage to convey
runoff to a suitable discharge outlet.
• Typical benching of slopes is shown in Figure
7.5.
24
25
• Lightweight Fill
• In embankment construction, lightweight fill
can reduce the driving force of the slope and
thereby increase the stability.
• Lightweight materials, such as slag,
encapsulated sawdust, expanded shale, cinders,
shredded rubber tires, polystyrene foam, and
seashells, have been used successfully.
26
• Lightweight Fill
• Selection of type of lightweight material
depends on its cost & availability.
• Sawdust and wood fiber are used to replace
soils from a landslide head.
• Exposed wood fiber and sawdust decay with
time.
• Asphalt encapsulation is commonly applied as a
retardant to the decay process.
• Expanded Polystyrene is also now used
commonly 27
Buttressing
• Buttressing is a technique used to offset or
counter the driving forces of a slope by an
externally applied force system that increases
the resisting force.
• Buttresses may consist of
1. Soil and rock fill
2. Counterberms
3. Shear keys
4. Mechanically stabilized embankments (MSE)
5. Pneusol (tiresoil)
28
Buttressing
1. Soil and rock fill
• Soil and rock fill is used to provide sufficient
dead weight near the toe of an unstable slope to
prevent movement (fig).
• Where resources are available and where soil
and rock fill can be found locally, this method is
the most practical way to arrest further
movement of an unstable slope.
29
30
Buttressing
2. Counterberms
• A counterberm is used to provide weight at the
toe of a slope and to increase the shear strength
below the toe.
• This is particularly useful for embankments
over soft soils where ground at the toe can
move upward and form a bulge.
• By locating a counterberm where the upheaval
is expected to occur, the resistance against
sliding is also increased.
31
32
Buttressing
2. Counterberms
• The counterberm must be carefully designed in
order to utilize the weight, most effectively and
to assure that it is stable itself.
• Unless careful investigation and thorough
analysis are made, there is a danger that the
additional load imposed by the counterberm
may increase the driving force rather than
provide added resistance against sliding.
33
34
Buttressing
2. Counterberms
• The counterberm is safest if it extends between
an embankment and a natural bank or hill, as
shown in Figure.
• Used to stabilize embankments, counterberms
increase the length and depth of the potential
failure surfaces and increase the resisting
moments.
35
Buttressing
3. Shear Keys
• Shear keys are used sometimes to provide
additional sliding resistance for a counter-berm
or rocky/soil buttress.
• The main purpose of a shear key is to force the
critical slip circle deeper into a stronger
underlying formation, thereby increasing the
resistance along the slip surface (Figure 7.12).
• This method becomes very practical and cost-
effective if the stronger formation is only a few
feet below the overlying soft soils.
36
37
Buttressing
3. Shear Keys
• Construction of a shear key requires excavation
of a trench at the toe of the slope.
• In such circumstances, care must be exercised
not to further undermine the toe of the slope.
• This can be done by a careful design of a
bracing system for the trench and by excavating
only small sections at one time.
38
Buttressing
4. Mechanically Stabilized Embankments
• Mechanically stabilized embankments (MSE)
involve the use of backfill soil and thin metallic
strips, mesh, or geosynthetic reinforcement
mesh to form a gravity mass capable of
supporting or restraining large imposed loads
• The MSE slope face is either vertical or inclined,
and the backfill material is typically confined
behind metal, reinforced concrete, or shotcrete
facing.
39
Buttressing
• The mesh or geosynthetic is sometimes
wrapped around the soil at the face between
reinforcement layers.
• MSE slopes must be designed for internal and
external stability.
• Internal stability requires that the reinforced
soil structure be coherent and self-supporting
under the action of its own weight and any
externally applied forces.
40
41
Buttressing
• Reinforcement must be sized and spaced so
that it does not fail in tension under the
stresses that are applied, and does not pull out
of the soil mass.
• For external stability, an MSE slope must satisfy
same external design criteria as a conventional
retaining wall.
• That is, it must resist forces that can cause
overturning, sliding at or below the base, and
global instability.
42
Buttressing
• Granular backfill is commonly used in MSE
slopes.
• Caution should be exercised when using clayey,
highly micaceous, and residual soils.
• This is because significant reduction in pull-out
capacity (up to 70 percent reduction) of these
soils may occur when saturated.
43
44
Buttressing - MSE
• At a depth, z below the wall top, the force P,
against the facing or skin element defined as S
and ΔH, with an earth pressure coefficient K is
defined as
• And the friction force, F, developed by the top

and bottom faces of the metal strip of width, W ,
length L and angle of internal friction with the
backfill δ is,
45
Buttressing - MSE
• The required length , Lmin is found by
multiplying P by an appropriate safety factor Fs
and equating the expressions
46
Buttressing
5. Pneusoil (Tiresoil)
• Pneusol (tiresoil) uses old automobile tires as
inclusions in soil mass instead of metal or
nonmetal reinforcement in MSE walls.
• This technique was used to repair a side hill fill
failure along California State Highway 236, north
of Santa Cruz.
• After removing the slide debris to below the slip
surface, a drainage system was installed and the
embankment was rebuilt using tire sidewall mat
reinforcement at 2-foot vertical intervals.
47
48
Drainage
• Of all stabilization techniques considered for
the correction or prevention of landslides,
proper water drainage is the most important.
• Drainage reduces the destabilizing hydrostatic
and seepage forces on a slope as well as the risk
of erosion and piping.
• Various drainage techniques are discussed next.
49
Drainage – Surface Drainage
• Carefully planned surface drainage is essential
for treatment of any slide or potential slide.
• Every effort should be made to ensure that
surface runoff is carried away from and not
seeping downwards into the slope.
• Such considerations should always be made
and are extremely important when evaluating a
failure.
50
• Temporary measures considered immediately
after a landslide include;
– Using sandbags to divert water runoff away from
the failure zone
– Sealing cracks with surface coatings such as
shotcrete, lean concrete, or bitumen to reduce water
infiltration
– Covering the ground surface temporarily with
plastic sheets or the like to reduce the risk of
movement during construction
51
• Surface runoff usually is collected in permanent
facilities such as V- or U-shaped concrete lined
or semicircular corrugated steel pipe channels
and diverted away from the slide mass.
• These channels should be placed strategically at
the head of the slope and along berms.
• The detailing of surface water collection
systems should provide for minimum
maintenance and displacement due to future
slide movement.
52
• Catchment Parameters
• Catchment parameters to be considered in
drainage systems design include
i. Area and shape of the catchment zone
ii.Rainfall intensity
iii.
Steepness and length of the slope being drained
iv.Condition of the ground surface and nature of the
subsurface soils
v. Nature and extent of vegetation
• These parameters are site-specific and cannot
be generalized.
53
• Redirection of Surface Runoff
• When surface runoff is found to be the cause of
a landslide or a potentially unstable zone, it
should be redirected to ensure that the stability
of the slope is not further worsened.
• Redirection of surface runoff commonly is the
first response to a rainfall-induced failure.
• The design of the remedial drainage system
should consider natural drainage patterns.
54
Drainage – Subsurface Drainage
• The FOS against failure on any potential slip
surface that passes below the phreatic surface
can be improved by subsurface drainage.
• Methods that can be used to accomplish
subsurface drainage are
– Drain blankets
– Trenches
– Cut-off drains
– Horizontal drains
– Relief drains
– Drainage tunnels
55
• It is cost-efficient to incorporate methods into
initial design and construction than to need them
as remedial measures during or following
construction.
• As opposed to engineered slopes, natural slopes
are rarely homogeneous enough to allow design
of reliable subsurface drainage.
• For a successful dewatering system, designer
must have a good understanding of geological
structure and choose a drainage system layout
that increases the probability of intersecting
major water bearing layers. 56
• Monitoring is important for any subsurface
drainage program.
• Piezometers must be installed to measure the
preconstruction pore pressure, during and after
construction to observe the effects of the
subsurface drainage systems.
• In the long run, piezometric readings can
indicate reduction of drainage efficiency caused
by siltation, deterioration of seals, or
breakdown of pumps.
57
• The volume of water flowing out of a drain in a
water-bearing zone is determined by
permeability and hydraulic gradient.
• When a drain is installed, the groundwater level
will be lowered, thereby reducing head of water
and hydraulic gradient.
• The seepage will gradually reduce from its
initial value to a steady-state value.
58
• This flow reduction is not necessarily an
indication of drain deterioration.
• Abundant flow out of the drains installed in
clayey materials with low permeability should
not be expected.
• They can be operating successfully at very low
flow rates.
59
60
• Drainage Blankets.
• When there is a thin layer (<3m) of poor-
quality saturated soil at a shallow depth (<4.5m
beneath a proposed embankment), and when
there are materials of better quality below that
layer, it may be practical to remove the poor
quality layer and replace it with a well-draining
soil fill (Figure 7.18).
61
62
• Drainage Blankets.
• The bottom of the excavation should be covered
with a layer of filter fabric wrapping a 6- to 24-
inch-thick filter stone layer with a perforated
pipe embedded in it to capture flow.
• To avoid blockage of holes by vegetation, the first
5 feet of the outlet end of the perforated pipe
should not be perforated.
• To minimize surface erosion, a drainage ditch
should be installed to convey water flow from the
outlet of the pipe to a suitable discharge point.
63
• Trenches
• Deep trenches should be constructed when
subsurface water or soils of questionable
strength are found at such great depths that
stripping of the soils as is not possible .
• Trenches usually are excavated at the steepest
stable side slopes for the construction period.
• Shoring may be required.
• Any trench so excavated should extend below
the water-bearing layer.
64
• Trenches
• The trench should be backfilled with a layer of
pervious material encased in filter fabric that has
an underdrain pipe running through it.
• The number of trenches needed depends on the
hydrogeology and geomorphology of the site.
• If the slope is in a natural depression of limited
aerial extent, one trench normal to the centerline of
the site may be sufficient.
• In the case of large areas, an extensive system of
trenches, often in the form of a herringbone
pattern, may be necessary. 65
Trench under the embankment
66
Trench going down to a firm stratum, providing drainage and support
67
Trench within the embankment
68
Trench with lateral berm with transverse discharge pipe
69
• Cut-off Drains
• At a site where shallow groundwater is
encountered, cut-off drains can be used to
intercept the groundwater flow.
70
• Cut-off Drains
• An impermeable zone or membrane is used as a
cut-off downslope of the drain, and the top zone
of the trench is backfilled with impermeable
material.
• Runoff from the upper slopes should be
collected in drainage channels.
71
• Cut-off Drains
• The free draining material used to backfill the
trenches should be designed to conform with
standard filter criteria.
• The size of perforations in pipes should be
compatible with the grain size of the backfill
filter material.
72
• Horizontal Drains
• Horizontal drains can be used where the depth
to subsurface groundwater is so great that the
cost of stripping or placing drainage trenches is
prohibitive.
• Horizontal drains should be designed
specifically to lower the seepage pressures in
slopes and to prevent failure.
73
74
• A horizontal drain is a small-diameter (3- to 4-inch
diameter) hole drilled at a 5 to 10 percent grade and
fitted with a 2 to 2.5 -inch-diameter perforated
pipe wrapped in filter fabric.
• Water captured by drains are often discharged on
benches sloped for drainage and toe of the slope
equipped with underdrains.
• The first 5 feet of drain pipe immediately next to
outlet should not be perforated to avoid the
invasion of vegetation and subsequent
obstruction. 75
• Length of horizontal drains largely depends on
the geometry of zone in which they are to be
installed.
• They can be made as long as about 300 feet.
• In general, the length required can be
determined by drawing a cross section of the
slope with its probable critical circle
superimposed on a geologic cross section
depicting aquifers.
76
• The drains must be installed in such a way as to
give thorough protection to any zone that is
likely to slide.
• As for spacing, 5 to 15 feet is needed for low-
permeability ground.
• The effect of any one drain may be relatively
small.
• Installation difficult in fine silty sands, and soil
that contains boulders, rock fragments and
open cavities.
77
Horizontal drains to lower water
table in a cut
Embankment on a
Natural slope
78
Correction of an existing failure
79
• Success of a horizontal drain system is not
necessarily measured by the quantity of water
collected by the drains.
• A very permeable water-bearing stratum with
free water may be intercepted by the drains, in
which case the volume of flow drained may be
impressive.
80
• Conversely, drains may be installed in low-
permeability clayey formations where they can
very efficiently lower pore pressures and
greatly contribute to increased stability.
• The quantities of water they collect may be
small.
• Also, the amount of water collected by drains
may vary seasonally.
81
• Horizontal drains can effectively drain
materials of low permeability using vacuum
systems.
• Efficiency decreases with time as soil fines and
debris may clog, so arrangements for flush
cleaning must be provided.
82
• Relief Wells
• The principal function of relief wells is to lower
the water pressures in layers that are deep
down in the subsoil, layers that cannot be
reached by open excavation methods or
horizontal drains because of cost or
construction difficulties.
• Relief wells are vertical holes with a diameter of
about 16 to 24 inches.
83
• Relief Wells
• A perforated pipe with a 4- to 8-inch diameter is
placed inside the hole.
• The annular space between the borehole and the
pipe should be filled with filter material.
• A water disposal system using a submersible
pump or surface pumping and discharge channels
is required to dispose of the water from the wells.
• Disposal of the water may be very costly, and an
effective dewatering system will require frequent
maintenance.
84
• Relief Wells
• Alternatively, horizontal drains can be used to
tap the relief wells for the disposal of water.
• However, this method requires a careful drilling
operation to successfully connect the horizontal
drains with the wells.
• The spacing between relief wells is very
important because it affects the performance
and cost of the system.
85
• Relief Wells
• Spacings of 15 to 40 feet are common, and
many systems consist of two closely
overlapping rows.
• The depth of relief wells depend son the
unstable zone in which stability needs to be
improved.
• Relief wells up to a depth of 160 feet have been
built.
86
87
• Drainage Tunnels or Galleries
• A drainage tunnel/gallery may be considered
when a cut to be dewatered is so large that it
requires a substantial number of horizontal
drains, when groundwater is at such a depth
that it is impossible to reach by open excavation
methods, or when the topography makes
horizontal drains impractical.
• Tunnels are effective for correcting unstable
zones of large proportions, but they have
relatively high construction costs.
88
89
Reinforcement
• Soil nailing
• Method of in situ reinforcement utilizing
passive inclusions that will be mobilized if
movement occurs.
• It can be used to retain excavations and
stabilize slopes by creating in situ, reinforced,
soil retaining structures.
• The main applications are shown schematically
in Figure.
90
91
Reinforcement
• Soil nailing
• In soil nailed excavations, the reinforcement
generally consists of steel bars, metal tubes, or
other metal rods that resist tensile stresses,
shear stresses, and bending moments imposed
by slope movements.
• The nails generally are not prestressed and are
relatively closely spaced.
• The nails can be installed in the excavation cuts
by either driving or grouting in predrilled
boreholes.
92
Reinforcement
• Soil nailing
• Stability of the ground surface between nails
can be provided by a surface skin often a thin
layer of shotcrete (4 to 6 inches thick)
reinforced with wire mesh or by intermittent
rigid elements analogous to large washers.
• Soil nailing in excavations has been used in
granular and cohesive soils and in relatively
heterogeneous deposits.
93
Reinforcement
• Soil nailing
• Soil nailing system design involves spacing, size,
and length of the nails and design of the wall
facing.
• The spacing, size, and length of the nails must
be determined based on global stability and
internal stability considerations.
• Design of the wall facing(materials, thickness,
and reinforcement) is dependent on the nail
forces assumed.
94
Reinforcement
• Soil nailing
• The desired FOSs used in the design analysis
are different from case to case and should be
compatible with the use of the wall (whether it
is a permanent or temporary wall) and
economic and risk-to-human-life consequences
of the slope.
• For permanent soil nailed slopes, corrosion
protection should always be considered in
design.
95
Reinforcement
• Soil nailing
• Furthermore, for the design of the soil nail wall
system, engineers must choose the method that
they feel most comfortable with and make the
appropriate modifications and adjustments
based on experience, instrumentation, case
histories, engineering judgment, and
commonsense.
96
Reinforcement
• Soil nailing
• In comparison to conventional excavation and
retaining systems, such as massive concrete
walls, internal bracing systems, and tieback
wails, soil nailing presents the following
advantages:
– Low Cost: Steel bar reinforcement is inexpensive.
The shotcrete between the nails is relatively thin
and inexpensive.
97
Reinforcement Continued…
• Soil nailing
• advantages:
– Light Construction: Equipment Soil nailing can be
done using conventional drilling and grouting
equipment. Thus the technique is of particular
interest on sites with difficult access and limited
space constraints.
98
• Soil nailing
• advantages:
– Adaptability to Different Soil Conditions: In
heterogeneous ground where boulders or hard
rocks may be encountered in softer layers, soil
nailing generally is more feasible than other
techniques such as soldier piles. This is because it
involves only small-diameter drilling for the
installation of the inclusions.
99
• Soil nailing
• advantages:
– Flexibility Nailed soil retaining structures are more
flexible than classical cast- in-place reinforced
concrete retaining structures. Consequently, these
structures can conform to deformation of
surrounding ground and can withstand larger total
and differential settlements. This characteristic of
soil nailing can provide economical support for
excavations on unstable slopes.
101
• Soil nailing
• advantages:
– Reinforcement Redundancy If one nail becomes
overstressed for any reason, it will not cause failure
of the entire wall system. Rather, it will redistribute
its overstress to the adjoining nails.
102
Reinforcement
• Soil nailing
• Disadvantages are common to other
reinforcement systems and are minor as
compared to the advantages listed before.
• The disadvantages of soil nailing are:
1. The ground to be excavated must be strong
enough for 3- to 8-foot high cuts to remain stable
for at least a few hours to allow time for
reinforcement installation.
103
• Soil nailing
• The disadvantages of soil nailing are:
2. Free water cannot be flowing out of the face of the
excavation to permit the application of shotcrete
facing.
3. Reliable drainage systems are difficult to construct.
4. Very soft clays are not suitable for this type of
reinforcement because of potential creep
movements.
5. Permanent or temporary underground easements
may be required; interference with nearby utilities
may occur.
104
• Stone Columns
• Stone columns can be used to stabilize or
prevent landslides.
• This ground improvement technique increases
the average shear resistance of the soil along a
potential slip surface by replacing or displacing
the in situ soil with a series of closely spaced,
large-diameter columns of compacted stones.
105
106
• Stone Columns
• In addition, stone columns also function as
efficient gravel drains by providing a path for
relief of pore water pressures, thereby
increasing the strength of the surrounding
clayey soils.
107
• Stone Columns
• Construction of stone columns consists of:
1. Forming a vertical hole in the underlying material,
using either the vibro-replacement or vibro-
displacement technique.
2. Placing stone in preformed hole from ground
surface, as in vibro-replacement technique, or by
means of bottom feed equipment, as in vibro-
displacement technique.
3. Compacting stone by re-penetration of each lift with
the vibroflot, a process that drives the stone laterally
to the sidewalls of the hole and thus enlarges the
hole. 108
• Stone Columns
• Stone column technique is more suitable for
subsurface soils whose shear strengths range
from 200 to 1000 pounds per squarefoot.
• Soils weaker than the lower limit may not
provide sufficient lateral support for the stone
till, thus causing large stone consumption
and/or excessive deformation.
• For soil strength approaching the upper limit,
stone columns may not be needed.
109
• Stone Columns
• Special care should be exercised when stone
columns are used in sensitive or organic soils.
• In sensitive soils, construction should proceed
quickly to minimize the amount of vibration to
the soils.
• Peaty soils, in which the layer thickness is
greater than one to two vibroflot diameters,
should he avoided because of documented poor
performance and construction problems.
110
• Micropiles
• Reticulated micropiles were developed in Italy
and are used to create a monolithic rigid block
of reinforced soil to a depth below the critical
failure surface.
• The piles used in this way are similar to soil
nailing systems.
• The major difference between the reticulated
micropiles and soil nailing is that the behavior
of micropiles are influenced by their geometric
arrangement.
111
112
• Micropiles
• Field and model tests have demonstrated that
the group and network effect of a reticulated
micropile system provides higher load bearing
and shearing capacities than those of closely
spaced vertical piles.
• Because of the great length of the piles as
compared with their diameter, the load and
shearing resistance are carried not only by the
piles but also by the soil they encompass.
113
• Micropiles
• As a result of the crisscross pattern used, the
micropiles are subject to compression and
tension forces that provide the required
structural stability of the reinforced slope.
114
• Micropiles
• The advantages of reticulated micropiles used
in slope stabilization are fourfold:
1. They do not require large soil excavations.
2. They can be considered in any soils, whatever the
permeability and whatever boulders or other
obstructions may be present.
3. They do not prevent water circulation in the
subsoil so there is no risk of water accumulating in
the system as at the back of conventional walls.
115
• Micropiles
• The advantages of reticulated micropiles used
in slope stabilization are fourfold:
4. Design can be arranged to counteract many
patterns of internal forces.
• The drawbacks of micropiles are that the piles
must be founded in stable formations, which
can be deep below the slip zone, and
provisions must be made to resist long-term
corrosion of the steel bars.
116
• Geosynthetically Reinforced Slopes

• Geosynthetic soil reinforcement is another
technique used to stabilize slopes, particularly
after a failure has occurred or if a steeper-
than-”safe” unreinforced slope is desirable.
• In addition, it can improve compaction on the
edge of a slope, thus decreasing the tendency
for surface sloughing.
117
118
• Geosynthetically Reinforced Slopes

• Similar to MSE slopes, design of
geosynthetically reinforced slopes is based on
modified versions of classical limit equilibrium
slope stability methods.
• The capacity of reinforcement layers is taken as
either the allowable pull-out resistance behind
the potential failure surface or as its allowable
design strength, whichever is less.
• The target factor of safety for a reinforced slope
is the same as for an unreinforced slope.
119
Retaining Walls
• The most common use of retaining walls for
slope stabilization is when a cut or fill is
required and there is not sufficient space or
right-of-way available for just the slope itself.
• The wall should be deep enough so that the
critical slip surface passes around it with an
adequate FOS.
120
Retaining Walls Continued…
• In addition, the ability of the retaining wall to

perform as a stabilizing mass is a function of
how well it will resist overturning moments,
sliding forces at or below its base, and internal
shear forces and bending stresses.
• Retaining wall types include:
1. Conventional gravity or cantilever retaining walls
2. Driven piles
3. Drilled shaft walls
4. Tieback walls
121
122
Retaining Walls Continued…
• Each of these retention systems is discussed in

the following subsections.
• Since it is considerably difficult and costly for
the retention system to block groundwater flow,
walls should be designed with adequate
drainage systems behind or through the walls.
123
Retaining Walls - Gravity and Cantilever
• design of retaining walls is based on classical
soil mechanics and should consider forces that
drive overturning and sliding at the wall base.
• Overall stability of walls should also be
satisfied.
• Shear keys are sometimes required to provide
adequate sliding resistance.
124
Continued…
Retaining Walls - Gravity and Cantilever
• Construction of a shear key sometimes requires
excavation of a trench at the toe of an unstable
slope.
• In such circumstances, care should be exercised
so as not to further undermine the slope by
using a bracing and shoring system or only
excavating small sections at one time.
125
Retaining Walls - Driven Piles
• Driven piles are sometimes used to provide
stabilization of landslides in natural hillsides
and engineered slopes .
• This method is only appropriate for shallow
slides and soils that will not tend to flow
between the piles.
• Deep-seated slides often generate very high
lateral forces, which cannot easily be resisted
by piles.
126
127
Retaining Walls - Driven Piles Continued…
• Piles should be embedded in firm and

competent ground to avoid being uprooted and
overturned.
• A slab of reinforced concrete is sometimes
placed between the piles to increase the overall
effectiveness of the system and to arrest soil
flow between piles.
• Overall, driven piles are not as effective to
arrest the sliding mass of an unstable slope as
other stabilization methods.
128
Retaining Walls - Drilled Shaft Walls
• In urban locations, flattened slopes or
counterweight fills are not feasible solution to
slope stability problems.
• Right-of-way limitations and presence of
existing private and commercial structures limit
the types of stabilization methods selected.
• In such cases, drilled shafts (usually 2 to 5 feet
in diameter) can be installed as a restraining
system.
129
Retaining Walls - Drilled Shaft Walls Continued…
• Drilled shafts must be embedded deeply
enough into a bearing stratum to provide
resistance against the lateral forces transmitted
from the unstable soil mass.
• Depth of the drilled shafts should also pass
through the potential critical slip surface.
• Because of arching effects between drilled
shafts, the shafts are usually spaced a distance
of three pile diameters apart.
130
131
• Contiguous drilled shaft Walls are sometimes
constructed to retain large open cuts more than
100 feet deep.
• Because of the contiguous nature of drilled
shafts, adequate drainage systems should be
provided behind the walls to facilitate water
seepage and to avoid buildup of hydrostatic
pressures.
132
133
134
• Although drilled shaft walls can correct or
prevent soil slope stability problems, they have
limitations that must be considered.
• Driving forces on the wall increase as a function
of the height squared.
• Higher walls necessitate increased depth of
penetration below the failure surface, greater
drilled shaft diameters, and additional
reinforcing to resist the overturning moments.
135
• Hence, the construction cost of the walls
becomes very expensive with height.
• The cost of the walls can be reduced when
combined with tiebacks or axial post-
tensioning.
136
Retaining Walls - Tie Back Walls
• Tieback walls can be used instead of
conventional walls when wall location or space
constraints limit excavation of the footing.
• Tieback wall designs use the principle of
carrying the lateral earth pressure on the wall
by a “tie” system that transfers imposed load to
a zone behind potential or existing slip plane
where satisfactory resistance can be
established.
137
Retaining Walls - Tie Back Walls Continued…
• The tiebacks consist of post-tensioned steel

cables, rods, or wires attached to deadmen (as
used in embankments)or grouted to a firm,
strong bearing stratum (as used in cuts).
• Permanent tiebacks are installed routinely in
cohesionless soils but rarely in soft to medium
cohesive soils because of concern about long-
term load holding ability.
138
139
140
141
Continued…
Vegetation
• Vegetation (grass, shrubs, and trees) is highly
effective and advantageous for soil stabilization
purposes.
• Removal of earth to construct cuts and
embankments removes the vegetative covering
and the surface soils are left exposed and
susceptible to erosion.
• Vegetation stabilizes the soil surface by the
intertwining of its roots, minimizes seepage of
runoff into the soil by intercepting rainfall, and
retards runoff velocity.
142
Continued…
Vegetation
• In addition, vegetation may have an indirect
influence on deep-seated stability by depleting
soil moisture, attenuating depth of frost
penetration and providing a favorable habitat
for the establishment of deeper-rooted
vegetation(shrubs and trees).
• Vegetation is multifunctional, relatively
inexpensive, self-repairing, visually attractive,
and does not require heavy or elaborate
equipment for its installation.
143
Continued…
Vegetation
• However, there are certain limitations.
• Vegetation is susceptible to blight and drought.
• It is difficult to get established on steep slopes.
• It is unable to resist severe scour or wave
action, and it is slow to become established.
144
Vegetation – General Design Considerations
• Vegetation can affect the balance of stresses in a
slope due to
– mechanical reinforcement from the root system of
trees,
– slope surcharge from the weight of trees,
– Modification of soil moisture,
– reduction of pore pressures by interception and
– transpiration from the foliage, attenuation of frost
depth penetration,
– and lateral restraint by buttressing and soil-arching
action from the trunks or stems.
145
Continued…
• Soil erodibility can contribute to slope
instability and is another design factor to be
considered.
• The susceptibility of soil particles to
detachment and transport by rainfall and runoff
depends on soil textures, slope lengths, and
angles.
• Root Reinforcement can provide apparent
cohesion.
146
Continued…
• Hydrologic Effect: Vegetation can affect the
stability of slopes by modifying the hydrologic
regime of soil.
• Interception and transpiration of moisture by
trees tend to maintain drier soils and mitigate or
delay the onset of waterlogged or saturated soil
conditions.
• Such conditions have been known to cause slope
failure.
• Conversely, felling trees tends to produce wetter
soils and faster recharge times following intense
rainstorms. 147
Continued…
• Soil erodibility is a measure of the susceptibility
of soil particles to being eroded by rainfall and
runoff.
• Erosion, particularly at the toes of slopes, is
known to trigger landslides.
• Soil erodibility is measured by a factor, K, which
is affected by soil textures, lengths, and slope
gradients.
148
Vegetation – Species
• Since plants and grass absorb different
amounts of water depending on the type of soil
that they grow in, there are several different
criteria for the select on of the most
appropriate species.
• A general rule of thumb is to use local plants
and grass that are adaptable to local climate.
• Deciding exactly what types or species are
needed requires the aid of horticulture and
landscaping experts.
149
Continued…
Vegetation – Species
• In general, vegetation that absorbs large
amounts of water from the soil are best in
clayey soils to ensure a drier and stronger soil
crust.
• On the contrary, species that absorb less water
would be ideal for sandy soils because intense
drying of sandy surface soils makes them more
susceptible to erosion.
150
Vegetation – Biotechnical Stabilization
• Biotechnical stabilization basically combines
concept of in situ reinforcement by wood stems
with surface protection by vegetation.
• It was pioneered by Gray and Leiser(1982) and
involves use of living vegetation, primarily cut
woody-plant material, arranged and embedded
in ground to prevent surficial erosion and to
arrest shallow mass movement.
• Practical application of this technique is confined
mostly to fill slopes and embankments, or to
soils used as buttresses against a cut.
151
Continued…
• Live cut stems and branches are used as main
soil reinforcement, providing immediate
reinforcement.
• Secondary stabilization occurs as a result of
rooting along the length of buried stems.
• In addition to its reinforcing role, woody
vegetation serves as a hydraulic drain
buttressing element, and a barrier to earth
movement.
152
Continued…
• Biotechnical stabilization technique employs a
method of brush-layering during construction
of a fill.
• A brush-layer fill consists of alternating layers
of earth and live, cut branches.
• The branches are placed in a crisscross pattern
between successive lifts of compacted soil.
• This technique has been used successfully to
repair highway slopes in the United States.
153
154
Continued…
• Brush stems and branches, which reinforce fill
like geosynthetic reinforcement, should be
designed for resisting pull-out and tensile
failure using conventional methods.
• Required vertical spacing and length of
successive layers of brush reinforcements are
determined from specified FOS, allowable unit
tensile strength, and interface friction
properties of reinforcement layer.
155
Continuation…
• The allowable unit tensile resistance for a
brush-layer can be calculated from tensile
strength of the brush stems, their average
diameter, and number of stems placed per unit
width.
156

Slope Stabilization Methods

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Slope Stabilization Methods

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Slope Stabilization Methods

• And the friction force, F, developed by the top

• Geosynthetically Reinforced Slopes

• Geosynthetically Reinforced Slopes

• In addition, the ability of the retaining wall to

• Each of these retention systems is discussed in

• Piles should be embedded in firm and

• The tiebacks consist of post-tensioned steel

You might also like