WATER QUALITY AND

WATER POLLUTION
How Much ?? (mg/L) Organic, Inorganic, Color,
Odor

Presence of impurities in such

quantity and of such nature
as to impair the use of water
for designated purpose
WATER POLLUTION
Drinking, Agriculture,
Bathing, Industrial use,
Fishing, Recreation
 sion
n tru
Detergents-P
te r I Cl
a a
SS, Pesticides, NOM Human Waste: Organics, lt W DS:N
N,P & Pathogens Sa T
Industries:
Organics, Salinity
Eutrophication
Cr,Cd,Pb, Hg
River Pollution

Bioaccumulation &
Groundwater Pollution Natural Impurities: Biomagnification
Dissolved Solids:
Even Arsenic &
Fluoride

IMPURITIES IN HYDROLOGIC CYCLE

Size Classification of Impurities
Micrometer Scale
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1.0 10 102 103

Aqueous Virus Protozoa Silt Sand

Salts
Metal Bacteria (Coliform)
Ions
Trihalomethanes Clay Cryptosporidium

Pesticides Humic Acid

Never Settle in Your

Ionized Lifetime Can be settled
Dissolved Colloids Suspended
Precipitation Coagulation & Flocculation Settling
Oxidation Ultrafiltration & Coagulation-Flocculation-Settling
Reverse Nanofiltration Ultrafiltration, Microfiltration
Osmosis Slow Sand Filtration Sand Filtration
Water Quality : Ganga Jal
Effective Use:
Every Purpose
Water Quality
Effective Use:
Only for Certain purpose
Water Quality
Effective Use:
Not fit for any use
Impurities/quality parameters in water

1. Physical
2. Chemical
3. Biological/Biochemical
4. Bacteriological
1. Physical Water Quality Parameters
Parameters respond to the senses of
• Sight: Suspended Solids: SS or TSS,
Turbidity, Color
• Touch: Temperature
• Taste: Taste
• Smell: Odor
 Suspended Solids

Suspended Solids:
– Volatile (Organic: Algae, bacteria)
– Inert (Inorganic: Clay, Silt)
• Generally used for Wastewater
– SS=0 (Clear groundwater)
– 300 mg/L (sewage)
– 1000 mg/L (Monsoon Rivers): Hydro Power Plant: Erosion
and corrosion
– 100,000 mg/L (Food Industry Wastewater)
 Suspended Solids
Natural Waters
 Direct hazard to aquatic life: Settle & Cause Anaerobic Conditions
 Siltation- Reduce reservoir capacity.
Wastewaters
 Designing of Treatment Facilities in Wastewater Treatment Plants
 Indian Standard < 100 mg/L
Drinking Waters
 Uses turbidity in place of TSS for Drinking Waters
 Indian Standards Turbidity < 5 NTU
 DETERMINATION OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS
US EPA Method 160.2
ASTM Method D5907
1.5 micron filter pore size 2. Pour
Sample
1. Weigh new
filter and insert

5. Measure
Change in
Weight 3. Start
suction pump
4. Remove filter
Dry at 103oC and re-weigh

6. Divide this by the volume

filtered we get TSS in mg/L Suction Flask
 Turbidity: Surrogate for TSS

• Normally used for drinking water: Due to very low

TSS.

• Imparts opaqueness & color

• Turbidity is measured based on light scattering by

the particles in water- Nephlometer

• Nephlometric Turbidity Unit (NTU)

 DETERMINATION OF TURBIDITY

It is determined by light scattering using a turbidimeter: suspended

solids are determined indirectly

Sample Cell

Light Source

Photomultiplier

CEE 370 L#5

TURBIDITY IMPACT
 Drinking Water
• Generally less than 1 NTU for clean water.
• India Standard : 5 NTU: turbidity of 5 NTU is just
noticeable in a glass of water. Developed Countries
<0.3 NTU
• highly turbid harbor microorganisms capable of
causing disease in humans, or if the particles have
adsorbed toxic organic or inorganic compounds.
• The 1993 WHO Guidelines indicate that a turbidity
above 5 NTU may give rise to consumer complaints.
• The United States EPA regulations require turbidity
to be less than 5 NTU, and less
 Color
• By organic debris, leaves, tannins, humic acids: Natural color
• Iron and Manganese: Brown & Blackish Color
• Different types of Industries- Sugar, Pulp & Paper
• Measured by Spectrophotometer
• Aesthetic problem, Color causing substances react with
Chlorine/Bromine and form THM (Trihalomethanes)

Trichloromethane(chloroform) CHCl3
Dibromochloromethane CHClBr2
Bromodichloromethane CHCl2Br
Tribromomethane (bromoform) CHBr3

• Can be removed by Coagulation-Flocculation, Activated Carbon Adsorption &

Ozonation
 Taste & Odor
• Alkaline material: Bitter taste.
• Metallic Salts : Salty Taste.
• Organic Material: Reduced Products of
Sulphur: Rotten Eggs.
• Aesthetically displeasing for consumers.
• Removed by Activated Carbon Adsorption
& Ozonation.
 Temperature/Thermal Pollution
•Life threatening: Trout & Salmon
•Beneficial: for some fishes
•Within certain limits- promotes fish growth,
fishing may improve
•Sudden change in temperature undesirable
With increase in temp.:
•Metabolic rate increases by a factor of 2 for each
10 degree C rise in temp.
•DO requirement increases & Available DO reduces
 Evaporative Cooling Tower

• Exercise:
How much makeup water in m3/h is required for
input energy of 1700 MW? If makeup water is
provided from the river at 15oC. Heat of
vaporization at 15 oC is 2465 kJ/kg
2. Chemical Water Quality Parameters

Major & Minor Ions in Water

Major constituents (1.0 to 1000 Secondary constituents (0.01 to
mg/L) 10.0 mg/L)
Calcium and Potassium
Magnesium
Sodium Iron and Manganese
Bicarbonate Fluoride
Sulphate Nitrate and Phosphates
Chloride
 Major Cations and Anions
CATIONS ANIONS
Calcium (Ca2+) Bicarbonate (HCO3-)/
Carbonate (CO3--)
Magnesium (Mg2+) Sulphate (SO4--)
Sodium (Na+) Chloride (Cl-)
Potassium(K+):Banana-radioactive:Half life of 1.251×109 y

Ca++ Mg++ Na+ K+

HCO3-/CO3-- SO4-- Cl-

Ion chromatography
 Ion Balancing
• Sum of the positive ions (cations) must equal the sum
of the negative ions (anions).

• Error in a cation-anion balance can be written as:

% balance error = Σ cations – Σ anion ×100
Σ cations + Σ anions

• Where the ions are expressed in meq/l

• For groundwater and surface water, the % error

should be less than 5. If it is greater, the analysis may
not be correct.
 Ion Balancing

Equivalent Weight = Atomic or molecular weight / n

Where n = valance or ionic charge viz. for Ca2+, n=2
A laboratory measures the following concentrations of ions in a
sample of water. Perform the validation check.
Cation Conc (mg/l) Anion Conc (mg/l)
Ca2+ 93.8 HCO3- 164.7
Mg2+ 28.0 SO 4-2 134.0
Na+ 13.7 Cl - 92.5
K+ 30.2

1. First the concentrations of cations and anions must be

converted from mg/l to meq/l.
a) This conversion is made using the mg/meq value for each
major ion species. This value is equal to the atomic weight of
the species divided by the ion charge.
For Calcium (Ca+2):
• Atomic weight = 40
• Ion charge = 2
• mg/meq = 40/2 = 20
 Contd.

Dividing the concentration (mg/l) by the

mg/meq value for each species result in
meq/l.
• For Calcium (Ca2+):
• Concentration (mg/l) = 93.8
• mg/meq = 20
• 93.8/20 = 4.69 meq/l
Cation Concentration (mg/l) (mg/meq) (meq/l)
Ca+2 93.8 20.0 4.69
Mg+2 28.0 12.2 2.3
Na+ 13.7 13.7 0.60
K+ 30.2 39.1 0.77
Total Cations 8.36 meq/l

Anion Concentration (mg/l) (mg/meq) (meq/l)

HCO3 - 164.7 61.0 2.74
SO4-2 134.0 48.0 2.79
Cl- 92.5 35.5 2.61
Total Anions
8.14meq/I

8.36
7.59
6.99
4.69

0
Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+
HCO3- SO42- Cl-
0
Check accuracy (% balance error)

% balance error = Σ cations – Σ anions ×100

Σ cations + Σ anions

= 8.36 - 8.14 × 100 = 1.3 %

8.36 + 8.14

This is less than the allowed error, so the sample results can be
accepted. If error > 5% then check results, and possibly re-
analyse samples.
Note: An accurate ion balance does not necessarily mean that the
analysis is correct. There may be more than one error and these
may cancel each other out.
 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
 Total Dissolved Solids: Summation of all ions
 Water classification
– freshwater < 1500 mg/L TDS
– brackish water 1500 – 5000 mg/L
– saline water >5000 mg/L
– sea water 30-34 g/L

Rating the palatability of drinking water as

follows :
mg/L Source
120-200 Excellent All Imp Rivers
200-500 Good IIT Roorkee
500-800 Fair NCR/Punjab
800-1000 Acceptable NCR Region
>1000 Poor Agra
 Electrical conductivity: Surrogate for TDS

 TDS or Total Dissolved Solids is a

measure of the total ions in solution.
 EC is actually a measure of the ionic
activity of a solution in terms of its
capacity to transmit current.
 In dilute solution TDS and EC :

TDS (mg/L) = A x EC (μS/cm),

where A = 0.5
 Calcium & Magnesium: Determine
Hardness of Water

A term often used to characterize the ability of water

to:
cause soap scum
increase the amount of soap needed
cause scaling of pipes
Ca(HCO3)2 CaCO3(s) (at high pH)
Mg(HCO3)2 MgCO3(s) (at high pH)
cause valves to stick due to the formation
of calcium carbonate crystals
leave stains on plumbing fixtures
 Formation of Hardness
Hard Water
Precipitation

Topsoil

Subsoil

CO2 + H2O  H2CO3

Limestone CaCO3(s) + H2CO3  Ca(HCO3)2

MgCO3(s) + H2CO3  Mg(HCO3)2
 Types of Hardness

• Total Hardness= Ca 2+ + Mg 2+
• Carbonate Hardness= Hardness
Associated with HCO3- and CO3--
• Non Carbonate Hardness = Hardness
Associated with other anions
Diffirent types of Hardness from
previous problem

Total
hardness
Carbonate Noncarbonate
hardness hardness

Ca-CH Ca-
NCH Mg-NCH

8.36
7.59
6.99
4.69

0
Ca2+ Mg2+ Na+ K
+
- 2- -
HCO3 SO 4 Cl
0
5.53
2.74

8.14
 • Total Hardness= Ca 2+ + Mg 2+
• Carbonate Hardness= Hardness Associated
Cation (meq/l)
with HCO3- and CO3--
Ca+2 4.69
• Non Carbonate Hardness = Hardness
Mg+2 2.3
Associated with other anions
Na+ 0.60
K+ 0.77
Total Cations 8.36 meq/l

8.36
7.59
6.99
4.69
0
Anion (meq/l)
HCO3 - 2.74 Ca 2+ Mg2+ Na+ K+
SO4-2 2.79
Cl- 2.61 HCO3- SO42- Cl-
Total Anions 8.14meq/I
0 2.74 5.53 8.14
 Sodium
• All natural waters contain sodium ions (Na+) as the element is one
of the most abundant on the planet.
• High concentrations in inland waters, however, are normally
associated with pollution from industrial discharges or sewage
effluent or, in coastal areas, sea water intrusion. Normally, however,
sodium concentrations are below 200 mg/L .
• Na (non- toxic): Bitter taste and health hazard to cardiac and kidney
patients. Standard (250 mg/L)
• Have a negative effect on soil structure by deflocculating it, which
can affect plant growth.
• To evaluate the suitability of water for irrigation the Sodium
Adsorption Ration (SAR) is used as follows:
 SAR

• SAR < 3 the water is suitable for irrigation use.

• 3 to 9 represent some use restrictions.
• SAR values in excess of 9 normally mean that water
cannot be used for irrigation.
• In India, however, the SAR standard for irrigation water
is set to 26 which reflects the fact that sodium does not
build up in the soil and cause damage because every
monsoon season the soil is thoroughly flushed and
renewed.
 % Na and RSC
• Sodium percentage (%Na)
• = [Na *100/(Na + K + Ca + Mg)], where all values are
expressed in meq/L.
• It is recommended that sodium percentage should not exceed
60.
• In waters where the bicarbonate content is high, there is a
tendency for calcium and magnesium if present, to precipitate
out as carbonates, thus increasing SAR. The Residual
Sodium Carbonate (RSC) is defined as:

If its value exceeds 2.5 meq/L the water is not suitable, 2.5 to
1.25 is marginal and less than 1.25 is safe.
Problem: A water sample is known to contain calcium, sodium chloride and bicarbonate. The result of an
analysis were as follows:
Calcium 60 mg/L, Sodium 46 mg/L, Chloride 71 mg/L
(Mol. wt. Ca++ 40, Na+ 23, Cl- 35.5, HCO3- 61.)
Calculate concentration of bicarbonates, % Na and RSC. Also comment on suitability of this water
for irrigation applications.

1. Estimation of the concentration of bicarbonates.

Calculate concentrations in meq/L
Ca++ = 60/20 = 3, Na+ = 46/23 = 2, Cl- = 71/35.5 = 2
Sum of cations = 5 meq/L
Therefore, for ion balance sum of anions is also = 5 meq/L
Hence HCO3- = 5 - 2 = 3 meq/L, or 3 x 61 = 183 mg/L

2. Calculation of percent sodium and residual sodium carbonate

Percent sodium = [2/(3 + 2)] x 100 = 40
RSC = 3 - 3 = 0

3. Comment on the suitability of water for irrigation.

The water is safe for irrigation, since both the parameters % Na and
RSC do not exceed the limits.
 Potassium
• The concentration of potassium ions (K+) in
natural fresh waters is generally low (normally
less than 10 mg/L).
• Sea water and brines contain much higher
concentrations.
• Potassium ions are highly soluble and are
essential for most forms of life.
• Potassium in the water environment is readily
taken up by aquatic life.
 Anions: Sulphate
• Sulphate is present in all surface waters as it arises from
rocks and from sea water which contain a high sulphate
concentration.
• High concentrations of sulphate make the water
– corrosive to building materials (e.g., concrete)
– scale-formation
– palatability
– may get reduced to hydrogen sulphide, a toxic, foul-smelling gas
under anoxic conditions
• Usually ~ 2 to 80 mg/L, although may exceed 1000 mg/L
if industrial discharges or sulphate-rich minerals are
present.
• Indian Standard, SO4– : 200 mg/L
Anions: Sulphate
Anions: Sulphate
 Chloride

• Usual sources: rocks, the sea, sewage, agricultural and

industrial effluents.
• Fresh water < 40 mg/L (can be as low as 2 mg/L)
• Chloride >100 mg/L give the water a salty taste
• The Drinking Water Standard for Chloride is = 250 mg/L
 Nitrate

• Common contaminant in water supplies especially

shallow wells. Fertilizer is the largest contributor to
nitrate pollution. 
• Some sources say that poorly managed crops may
only utilize 10% of the nitrate that is actually used
on the field. 
• The runoff from these fields ends up in surface
water sources.  Nitrate is highly soluble in water.
Nitrate can also percolate down through the soil
and end up in the drinking water aquifers. 
 Nitrate Sources
• From livestock manure
run-off,
• From septic tanks leaching
into ground water.
• Industrial waste
• Lack of proper
underground drainage and
sewerage systems
 Nitrate

• Nitrate levels fluctuate seasonally,

seemingly based on rainfall.
• Shallow wells are more quickly and
adversely affected than deep well-
constructed wells.
• If area or well is prone to nitrate
contamination, regular water analysis is
recommended.
 Nitrate Contamination

•Over-exploitation, contamination and drought

•Karnataka,
•Andhra Pradesh
•Punjab

•Aurangabad, Jaipur, Udaipur, Muzaffarnagar

•Many places, almost mandatory for drinking water

quality analysis
 Nitrate Health Effects

• Methemoglobinemia, a sometimes fatal blood

condition in infants also known as "blue baby
syndrome".
• This condition reduces the blood's oxygen
carrying ability in infants and fetuses.
• Standard- 10 mg/L as NO3- (India)
• and 10 mg/L WHO
• It causes algae to bloom resulting in
eutrophication in surface water.
 Fluoride
• The fluoride occurs in water as Sellaite-MgF2, Fluorspar-Ca F2;
Cryolite-Na3 Al F6
• Many rivers flowing through more than half a dozen states in
India reported to have fluoride content varying from 0.1 to 12.0
ppm.
• Similarly occurrence of fluoride bearing waters was reported in
A.P., Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh.
• Generally higher conc. in deeper wells – Fluoride rich rocks
 Fluoride Significance
Low levels High levels
reduces dental caries/cavities dental fluorosis (>2ppm for children)
stabilize the skeletal systems crippling skeletal fluorosis (>4ppm)
disturb tooth mineralization (>1.5 mg/l)

Limit is 1 mg/L
 Fluorosis in India

 High levels of Fluoride were

reported in 230 districts of
20 States of India
 The population at risk as per
population in habitations
with high fluoride is 11.7
million as on 1.4.2014.
 In India fluorosis is mainly
due to excessive fluoride in
water except in parts of
Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh
where industrial fluorosis is
also seen.
 Fluorosis in India

 The late stages of skeletal and dental fluorosis are permanent

and irreversible in nature and have adverse effects on growth
and development.
 In 2008-09, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare,
Government of India launched a National Programme for
Prevention and Control of Fluorosis (NPPCF) with the aim
for prevention, diagnosis and management of fluorosis in
endemic areas.
 IRON & MANGANESE
 

• Drinking Water Standard:

– Iron=0.3 mg/L
– Mn = 0.05 mg/L
Fe++ and Mn++ Fe+++ and Mn+++
Oxidation
Soluble & invisible (Well water Insoluble & stains (Well water
and Anaerobic Reservoir) and Anaerobic Reservoir)
 Effects

• Growth of iron (oxidizing or reducing) bacteria in

distribution system – (obtain energy by oxidation
or reduction of iron, form slime layer)
• Foul taste & odors – red water in distribution
system
• Stains to plumbing fixtures
• Interfere laundering operations