SOIL DENSITY

and
POROSITY

Density – soil weight expressed in two ways:

particle density and
bulk density
Porosity – proportion of the total soil volume occupied
by the pore spaces
Soil Density
In the field, 1 cm3
of a certain soil
appears as below:

Bulk volume, Vb

Volume of pores, VP

Volume of solids, VS
 Soil Density
Expression

Soil Density is usually expressed in g cm-3

Take note that:

1 g cm-3 = 1 t m-3 = 1000 kg m-3
Definition Particle Density (Dp)

Dp is defined as the mass (or weight) of

a unit volume of soil solids.
Calculation
ODWs
Dp 
Vs
Where:
ODWs – oven dry weight of soil solids, g
Vs – volume of soil solids, cm3
Dp – particle density, g cm-3
Thus, if 1 cm3 soil solids weigh 2.6 g, Dp is 2.6 g cm-3.
Dp Values Particle Density (Dp)

Dp of most mineral soils usually varies within a

narrow range, from 2.60 to 2.75 g cm-3.
Dp of the minerals (quartz, feldspar, colloidal
silicates) which make up the major portion of
mineral soils is within the range of 2.60 to 2.75 g
cm-3.
Dp may exceed 2.75 g cm-3 when the soil
contains unusual amounts of heavy minerals
such as magnetite, garnet, epidote, zircon,
tourmaline, hornblende.
 Particle Density (Dp)
Factors affecting Dp

Fineness and arrangement of soil particles do not affect Dp.

Amount of OM – markedly affects the DP

OM weighs much less than an equal volume of mineral solids
having a Dp of 1.2 to 1.5 g cm-3.

Average Dp
For general calculations, the surface soil may be considered to
have an average Dp of 2.65 g cm-3 .
Definition Bulk Density (Db)

Db is defined as the mass (or weight) of a unit volume of

dry soil. Volume includes both solids and pores.
Calculation
ODWs
Db 
Where:
Vb
ODWs – oven dry weight of soil, g
Vb – bulk volume of soil, cm3
Db – bulk density, g cm-3
Thus, if 1 cm3 soil weighs 1.3 g, Db is 1.3 g cm-3.
 Bulk Density (Db)

Factors affecting Db
Soil texture
Organic matter content
Cultivation
Soil depth/horizon
 Factors Affecting Db
Soil Texture
Coarse textured soils – 1.20 to 1.80 g cm-3
Fine textured soils – 1.0 to 1.60 g cm-3
OM Content
OM induces granulation  results in low Db
Cultivation
Can either increase or decrease Db

Puddling/compaction – increases Db
A very compact subsoil, regardless of
texture may have Db as high as 2.0 g cm-3 or
greater
 Factors Affecting Db
Profile Depth/Horizon
An important feature of soil profiles is the
increase in Db with Depth. This is due to:

1. Lower OM content
2. Less aggregation and root penetration
3. Compaction by weight of the overlying
layers
4. Illuviation of clay particles
 Measurement of Db
Methods
1. Clod Method

2. Core Method
 Measurement of Db
Sample Calculation
Problem:

A metal cylinder is pushed into a loam soil and

the soil it contained was oven-dried to constant
weight at 1050C for 2 to 3 days. Following were the
measurements:
Cylinder diameter - 5 cm
Cylinder height - 6 cm
Oven-dry weight - 180g

Calculate the soil’s Db.

 Measurement of Db
Sample Calculation
Solution:
ODWs
Db  V = ∏r2h
Vb = 3.1416 (2.5)26
or
d2
180 g V h
Db  4
117.81cm 3 (5) 2
 3.1416 6
Db  1.53 g cm -3 4
= 117.81 cm3
 Bulk Density (Db)
Related Figures
When the soil Db is known, its actual weight
expressed as hectare-furrow slice could be calculated
using the formula:
Derived from the formula
Ws = A x Db x Ds
ODWs
where: Db 
Vb
Ws - hectare-furrow slice
A - area (ha) or 10,000 m2
Db - bulk density
Ds - plow depth
 Bulk Density (Db)
Related Figures
Hectare furrow slice
The figure that is most commonly used is
2,000,000 kg (2 x 106 kg).
Consider the weight of surface soil to a
depth of 15 cm with an average Db of
1.35 g cm-3 (1.35 t m-3)

Ws = 10,000 m2 x 1.35 t m-3 x 0.15 m

= 2025 tons
 2,000,000 kg
• What is the bulk density of a 765 g dry soil sample
that has an undisturbed volume of 510 cm3
• Convert the bulk density of the soil in Question #1
from metric units (g cm-3) to standard English units
(lb ft-3).
• Expand your answer in Question #2 to express how
many pounds of that soil are in an acre furrow slice.
• What is the bulk density of a 765 g dry soil sample that
has an undisturbed volume of 510 cm3?
Answer: B.D. = 765/510 = 1.5 g cm-3
• Convert the bulk density of the soil in Question #1 from
metric units (g cm-3) to standard English units (lb ft-3).
Conversion factor:
(1.0 g/cm3) (1.0 lb/454 g) (28,330 cm3/ft3) = 62.4 lb ft-3
Answer: (1.5) (62.4) = 93.6 lb ft-3
• Expand your answer in Question #3 to express how
many pounds of that soil are in an acre furrow slice.
Answer: (93.6 lb ft-3) (21,780 ft3 AFS-1) = 2,040,000 lb AFS-1
Total Porosity Porosity
Definition
Total porosity refers to the proportion of the total
soil volume that is occupied by the pore spaces. The
soil’s total porosity is calculated from its Db and Dp.

Calculation
 Db 
% PS  1  100
 Dp 
where:
Db – bulk density
Dp – particle density
Soil Pores

Clayey
Sandy Silty
 Porosity
Sample Calculation 1
Given:
Db = 1.30 g cm-3
Dp = 2.65 g cm-3
Calculate % PS

 1.30 gcm 3 
% PS  1  3 
100
 2.65 gcm 
= 50.9
 Porosity
Sample Calculation 2
Given:
Ratio of Db to Dp = 0.60
Calculate % PS

% PS  1  0.60100
= 40%
 Porosity
Factors influencing total porosity
1. Soil texture
Sandy soil – 35 to 50% PS
Medium to fine textured – 40 to 60%
PS
2. Profile depth
% PS varies with depth
Compact subsoils – 25 to 30% PS
3. Soil and crop management
Cropping tends to decrease %PS. This is associated with:
Decrease in OM and consequent reduction in
granulation
Compaction
 Porosity
Size of Pores
Macropores – allow ready movement of air and
percolating water
Micropores – impede air and water movement

Pore Size Distribution

Pore size distribution is more important than % PS
Balance of macro and micropores.
Importance Porosity
Important to soil productivity because of its effect
on the air and water relations in soils, i.e., water
storage and air capacity of soils
Coarse Textured
1. Low % PS but a large proportion of the PS
composed of macropores which are most efficient
in movement of water and air.
2. Volume of micropores is low hence WHC is low
Fine Textured
1. High % PS with large amount of total PS
composed of micropores hence they have high
WHC.
 Calculate the porosity of a 250 g
sample that contains 65 g of
water when 55% of the pores are
full of water.
• Oven dry wt. = 250g-65g = 185g soil
• Vol. of soil solids = 185g/2.65g/cm3 = 69.8cm3 soil
• Saturated water content = 65cm3/0.55 =
118.2cm3 water
• Total vol. of soil = 118.2cm3 + 69.8cm3 = 188cm3
• Porosity = Vair + Vwater/Vtotal = 118.2cm3/188cm3 x 100
= 63%
• Compaction by tillage implements changed the bulk
density from 1.2 g cm-3 to 1. 7 g cm-3 in a portion of
the rootzone. What was the initial porosity? What
is the compacted porosity? What percent of the
soil's porosity was lost due to compaction?
• Initial Porosity: %P.S. = 1 - ( 1.2/2.65 x 100) = 55%
Compacted Porosity: %P.S. = 1- ( 1.7/2.65 x 100) =
36%
Porosity lost: ((55-36)/55) * 100 = 35%
 SOIL COLOR

Color is the sensation produced when light

from an object enters the human eye. Thus,
the color of soil is the result of light reflected
from the soil.
Factors that give soil color
1. Organic matter
2. Weathered mineral material composing the soil
3. Quantity and condition of iron present

31
 Colors that Occur in Soils

Practically all colors occur in soils

White
Red
Brown
Gray
Yellow
Black
Bluish/greenish tinges (called mottling)
 Causes of Soil Color
The color of the soil is composite of the color of its components.

Component Color
a. Humus Black or brown
b. Iron oxides Red, rust brown, or yellow
c. Reduced iron Blue-green
d. Quartz Mostly white
e. Limestone White, gray or sometimes olive green
f. Feldspar Different colors with red predominantly
g. Clays Gray, white or red depending on type and
amount of iron coatings
Importance of Soil Color
Soil color has little actual effect on the soil.
However, soil can serve to tell much about a soil
which include:

1. Distribution/amount of soil organic matter

2. Soil temperature
3. Parent material from which the soil formed
4. Extent of weathering (climate in which the soil
developed)
5. State of aeration and drainage
 Importance of Soil Color

Distribution/Amount of Soil Organic Matter

Soils high in OM are black or dark-colored. Thus, dark-

colored soils are generally more fertile and productive
than light-colored ones.
Black>brown>rust brown>red>gray, yellow,white

Soil Temperature

Dark-colored soils absorb more heat. Thus, they

warm more quickly in the spring and tend to exhibit
higher soil temperatures.
 Importance of Soil Color

Parent Material
Note:This is not
Mafic rocks - darker in color always true
Felsic rocks - lighter in color particularly in
old soils
Climate
Warm climate - red soil colors

State of Aeration and Drainage

Bright red and yellow soils - well drained
Gray soils - poorly drained
 Soil Color and Drainage

Drainage Classes
1. Well-drained
2. Moderately well-drained
3. Somewhat poorly drained
4. Poorly drained
 Soil Color and Drainage

Drainage Classes

Drainage classes are distinguished in the field

by the proportion of gray colors (or mottles in the
soil profile).
• Gray mottles or splotches of gray color –
indicate that during some period of the
year, the soil is saturated with water for a
prolonged period.
 Soil Color and Drainage

Drainage Class Occurrence of Gray Color

Well-drained No gray color throughout the B-
horizon or to a depth of 1.5 m
Moderately well-drained Gray color in the B3 horizon or at a
depth of 1.0 m
Somewhat poorly drained Gray color in the upper B horizon
starting at 0.5 m
Poorly drained Gray color throughout the soil
profile
Measurement of Soil Color

Time of Measurement

Usually measured at two standard moisture contents:

• Field capacity (moist)

• Air-dry
Measurement of Soil Color

Method

The favored method is the Munsell System.

In this system, the soil

is compared with chips
of standard color.
 Measurement of Soil Color

Munsell System

The construction of the Munsell Charts is based on the three

properties of color:

Hue- dominant wavelength or color of the light

Value- total quantity of light which decreases from
dark to light colors
Chroma- relative purity of the dominant wavelength
of light
Measurement of Soil Color
Munsell System

Munsell notation of color - systematic numerical and

letter designation of each of the three variable
properties of color.

6 Munsell designation
e.g. 10 YR
4 Light yellowish brown

• 10 YR - hue
• 6 - value
• 4 - chroma
 SOIL
AIR
• Aeration – interchange of gases, specially
oxygen, between the soil air and the
atmosphere above the soil
• Soil Air – comprises 15-35% of the total soil
volume
 SOIL AIR
• Composition
Gas Soil Air Ordinary Air
(%) (%)
Oxygen 20.0 21.0
Nitrogen 78.0 78.03
Carbon Dioxide 0.5 0.03
Traces of hydrogen, ammonia, and oxides of S and N may be present

The various components of soil air are as

necessary to the productivity of the soil as the
solid and liquid phases.
 SOIL AIR
• Functions
Oxygen
Respiration – plant roots, microbes and the soil fauna
If restricted, root growth and uptake of nutrients by
water and air may be limited
Lack of oxygen tends to:

 Arrest OM decomposition and the associated

release of mineral nutrients
 Cause reduction of Fe, Mn, and SO4 and
form compounds that are toxic to plants
 SOIL AIR
• Functions
Carbon Dioxide
Helps to dissolve nutrients and to make them
available to the plants

Nitrogen
Nitrogen gas (N2) serves as raw material for
the production of combined N (NH3) by
symbiotic and non-symbiotic bacteria
Factors Affecting Soil Air Composition

The fluctuation of the composition of

soil air depends greatly on the following:
Factors affecting biological
activities of plants and
microorganisms that are related to
CO2 production and O2 consumption
Physical processes in soils related
to gas exchange
 Factors Affecting Soil Air Composition

These factors/processes include:

a. Fertilizer, lime application, and
incorporation to the soil of easily
decomposable organic materials
b. Irrigation/rain
c. Field/tillage operations
d. Season
e. Texture
f. Soil horizon
 Gaseous Exchange in Soils
Exchange of gases is caused by:

1. Mass flow (relatively not important to the overall

aeration of soils
2. Diffusion – term applied to the movement of
individual gases within a mixture
• Caused by independent variation in the
pressure of a single gas and results in flow
that does not relate to the flow of other
gases in the mixture
• The change in pressure responsible for
diffusion reflects a corresponding change
in the concentration of a gas
Factors Affecting Gaseous Diffusion in Soils

Exchange of gases is caused by:

The diffusion of gases in soils is controlled by:

a. Partial pressure gradient or the difference

in partial pressure of gas per unit of flow
distance
b. Conductivity of the soil for the particular
gas
 Factors Affecting Gaseous Diffusion in Soils

A soil may have a low conductivity for a gas for the

following reasons:

a. The pores in the soil are filled with water

b. The pores are too small to transmit air
rapidly even when they contain too little
water
Therefore, the important factors are:
a. Texture
b. Structure pore geometry and size
c. Water
content