Chapter 8

Summary of Manufacturing Processes

MSE/ME 563

5-16-10 1
 8.0 Manufacturing Processes for
Thermoset and Thermoplastic
Composites
8.2 Bag molding process
8.3 Compression molding
8.4 Pultrusion
8.5 Filament winding
8.6.1 Liquid composite molding processes (RTM, VARTM)
8.6.2 Elastic reservoir molding
8.6.3 Tube rolling
8.A Manufacturing processes for thermoplastic composites
8.B Manufacturing defects
8.C Tooling considerations

2
 8.2 Bag molding process

• This is also known as the “Autoclave Molding Process”.

• Objectives:
- Consolidate the laminate to specified degree (thickness)
- Fully cure the matrix material
- Ensure minimal porosity

3
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)
• Uses
– Used predominantly in the aerospace industry.
– Used where a high production rate is not an important consideration.

• Starting material
• The starting material in this process is a prepreg containing fibers in a partially cured (B-
staged) epoxy resin.

– Typically, prepreg contains about 42 wt.% resin. If prepreg is allowed to cure without
resin loss, cured laminate would contain 50 vol.% fibers.
– Since nearly 10 wt.% of resin flows out during molding process, actual fiber content in
cured laminate is 60 vol.%, considered industry standard for aerospace applications.
– Recent trend is to employ near-net resin content, typically
34 wt.%, and allow only 1 to 2 wt.% resin loss during molding.

4
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)

• Procedure
1. Mold surface covered with nonstick Teflon-coated glass fabric separator.
2. Prepreg plies laid up in desired fiber sequence and orientation.
3. Porous release cloth and a few layers of bleeder papers placed on top of
prepreg stack.
4. Complete lay-up covered with another sheet of Teflon-coated glass
fabric separator, caul plate, and thin, heat-resistant vacuum bag.
5. Entire assembly placed inside autoclave where a combination of heat,
external pressure, and vacuum is applied to consolidate and densify
separate plies into a solid laminate.
• Note: To prevent moisture pickup, prepreg roll on removal from cold storage
should be warmed to room temperature before use.

5
 3.4 Bag molding process (contd.)

Schematic of bag molding process.

P.K. Mallick, “Fiber Reinforced Composites,” Second Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., pp. 374 (1993).

6
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)

• Bleeder: Absorbs excess resin. Made from polyester mat or fiberglass coated with
teflon (or mold release agent) or cotton.
• Barrier: Layer of material that limits the upward movement of resin and prevents
resin from clogging the breather and vacuum lines (lets air to escape but does not
allow passage of resin).
• Breather: Material acts as a distributor for air escaping volatiles and gases. Acts as
a buffer between bag wrinkles and part surfaces. This is made from polyester felt,
fiberglass, or cotton.
• Caul Plate: Made with metal or composite.
• Vacuum Bag: Made from nylon or co-extruded nylon that has been heat stabilized.
• Peel Plies: Made from nylon, polyester or fiberglass fabrics.

7
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)

• Stacking concerns
– Maintain proper fiber angle from ply-to-
ply (use reference edge).
– Eliminate trapped air between plies.
– One chance only in lay-up (“stuck”
plies generally cannot be pulled apart
without deforming prepreg).
– Training is required to properly stack
the plies together.
– Only “matrix joints” allowed in plies.
– One ply may require more than one
piece of prepreg.
– Matrix joint (matrix fills while curing).
– Matrix joints do not cut across fibers.
– Gap size should not exceed 0.03 in. or
0.76 mm.
J.W. Mar and P.A. Lagace, “Advanced Composites,” video course (reorder no. 676-2100), Manual, MIT Center
for Advanced Study, Cambridge, MA, slide nos. 13-22 and 13-24 (1989).
8
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)

• During heating
• As the prepreg is heated, resin viscosity in the B-staged prepreg plies:
1. Initially decreases, attaining minimum viscosity.
2. Increases rapidly (gels) as the curing (cross-linking) reaction begins and
proceeds toward completion.

9
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)

• In a two stage cure cycle

- Two temperature ramps
- Two isothermal holds
- First ramp and hold allows resin to flow or bleed and volatiles to
escape - here viscosity initially drops and then dramatically increases
- Second ramp and hold is the polymerization portion of the cure cycle
- here viscosity initially drops slightly and then increases
• Straight ramp-up cure cycle: This can be used with the net-resin system.

10
8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)

Typical Composite Thermal Cure Profile

120
350

60
Temp. Temp.
240
(°F)

Viscosity

RT

Time (Minutes)

F.C. Campbell, “Manufacturing Processes for Advanced Composites,” Elsevier Inc., N.Y., p 181 (2004).

11
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)

Straight Ramp-Up Cure Cycle

120

350

Temp. 240 Temp.

(°F)

Viscosity

RT

Time (Minutes)

F.C. Campbell, “Manufacturing Processes for Advanced Composites,” Elsevier Inc., N.Y., p 181 (2004).

12
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)

Traditional Carbon/Epoxy Cure Cycle • High pressures (e.g., 100 psig) are commonly used during
autoclave processing to provide ply compaction and suppress
void formation. Autoclave gas pressure is transferred to the
laminate due to the pressure difference between the autoclave
100 psig
environment and the vacuum bag interior. Translation of the
autoclave pressure to the resin depends on several factors,
120 including the fiber content, laminate configuration and the
350 amount of bleeder material used.
•The classical approach to applying autoclave pressure during
the cure cycle is shown in the figure.
60
Temp. •In this approach, during the ramp-up to the first hold, only
240 Temp.
(°F) vacuum pressure is applied and maintained until the end of the
first isothermal hold. At that point, autoclave pressure is
applied, normally 80-100 psig for epoxies and the vacuum
Autoclave Pressure
Vacuum pressure is removed by venting to the atmosphere.
Pressure
RT •The rationale behind this approach is that vacuum will help to
remove volatiles from the melting resin while application of
the higher autoclave pressure would tend to trap them in the
Time (Minutes)
laminate. At the end of the first hold, full autoclave pressure is
applied to insure that the laminate is well compacted before the
resin viscosity rises to gel, otherwise the laminate will be
poorly compacted and numerous voids and porosity.

13
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)
• The approach to applying autoclave pressure, as shown in the previous slide, can cause
problems in a production environment. If the autoclave contains a large number of parts
with varying heat-up rates, the actual point in time to vent the vacuum bag to atmosphere
and apply autoclave pressure can be questionable. Because of different inertia (mass) of
different parts, it will not be clear when hold period should start or when is the proper
point to vent the vacuum bag and apply full autoclave pressure. Again, if the resin gels
during this first isothermal hold with only vacuum pressure applied to the laminate, then
the probability of gross porosity is very high.
• A second problem with applying only vacuum pressure during the initial portion of the
cure cycle deals with hydrostatic resin pressure (HRP), as illustrated in the next slide.
Even though a relatively high autoclave pressure (e.g., 100 psig) may be used during the
cure cycle, the actual pressure on the resin (HRP) may be significantly less. Because of
the load-carrying capability of the fiber bed in a composite lay-up, the HRP is typically
less than the applied autoclave pressure. With only vacuum pressure applied during the
initial part of the cure cycle, the HRP on the resin can be extremely low, even negative.
This is an ideal condition for void formation and growth if allowed to persist to high
enough temperatures. The HRP is critical because it is this pressure that helps that keeps
the volatiles dissolved in the solution. If the resin pressure drops below the volatile
vapor pressure, then the volatiles will come out of the solution and form voids.

14
8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)
Vacuum Only Can Create Negative Pressure

15
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)

• To circumvent both the problems in a production

Cure Cycle With Pressure Applied From Start
environment as mentioned previously, a significant
portion of the autoclave pressure can be applied
Autoclave Pressure
100 psig immediately before initiating the heat-up cycle. For
85 psig
standard epoxy systems, a full vacuum and 85 psig
120 autoclave pressure can be applied through the first
350
hold, and then the bag vented to atmosphere and 100
psig autoclave pressure applied before ramping up to
Temp.
60
Temp.
the final cure temperature.
240
(°F) • This approach, as shown in the figure here, applies
full vacuum at the start of the cure cycle and also
Vacuum
applies an autoclave pressure of 85 psig. The
RT
Pressure vacuum is again maintained until the end of the first
isothermal hold and then vented to atmosphere while
Time (Minutes) the autoclave pressure is increased to 100 psig.
• This cycle was developed when a large number of
parts on tools with widely varying heat-up rates had
to be loaded in an autoclave for a single cure.

16
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)
Autoclave Pressure
100 psig
85 psig

120
350

60
Temp. 240 Temp.
(°F)

Vacuum
RT Pressure

Time (Minutes)
Cure Cycle With Pressure Applied From Start
17
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)

Rationale in the approach when pressure is applied from start in the cure
cycle (see previous figure):

• Vacuum removes volatiles from the flowing or melting resin.

• 85 psig autoclave pressure maintains a positive hydrostatic resin pressure (HRP) to keep
deeper volatiles dissolved in the resin and initiating laminate compaction before gelation
starts as seen by the rise in the viscosity.
• First ramp and hold also equilibrates temperature through the laminate thickness.
• At the end of the first hold, vacuum is released, the autoclave pressure is increased to
100 psig, and the temperature is ramped up to the final cure temperature to facilitate
laminate compaction before the viscosity rises and full gelation takes place leading to
completion of the cure of the part.

18
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)
• Typical two-stage cure cycle for a carbon fiber-epoxy prepreg (figure, next
slide):
1. First stage
– Vacuum  25 in Hg, autoclave pressure 85 psig, temperature raised up to up to 130°C
(266°F) @ 3 to 5 deg F per min.
– Dwelling at this temperature for nearly 60 minutes until the minimum resin viscosity
is reached (temp., pressure and vacuum held constant).
– During the temp. dwell, external pressure applied to prepreg stack causes excess resin
to flow out into bleeders.
2. End of temperature dwell
– Pressure increased to 100 psig, vacuum is released and temp. increased to actual
curing temp. of resin (about 350 deg F) @ 3 to 5 deg F per min.
– Cure temp. and pressure maintained for 2 hours or more, until predetermined level of
cure has occurred. High pressures are used for ply compaction and suppress void
formation.
– Temp. slowly reduced @ 5 deg F per min to room temp. while laminate still under
pressure at end of cycle.
• Flow of excess resin from the prepreg is extremely important in reducing the void content
in the cured laminate.
19
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)

Typical two-stage cure cycle for a carbon fiber-epoxy prepreg.

P.K. Mallick, “Fiber Reinforced Composites," Second Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., p. 375 (1993).

20
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)

• Dwelling at temperatures lower than cure temperature is important because (1) it

allows lay-up to achieve a uniform temperature throughout the thickness, and (2) it
allows resin to reach a low viscosity.
• Void formation and growth in addition curing composites is primarily due to
entrapped volatiles. Higher temperatures result in higher volatile pressures. Void
growth will occur if volatile vapor pressure (void pressure) exceeds hydrostatic
resin pressure (HRP), while the resin is liquid.The prevailing relationship for void
formation, therefore, is

Pvoid > Phydrostatic  void formation and growth

21
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)
• Resin flow considerations
• Resin flow in lay-ups depends on:
• Lay-up thickness
• Heating rate
• Pressure application rate
• Cure pressure sufficient to squeeze out excess resin from 16 – 32 lay-ups
may be inadequate for 64-ply lay-up.
• If heating rate is too high, resin may start to gel before excess resin is
squeezed out from each ply.
• If the cure pressure is applied too early, excess resin loss would occur
because of low viscosity in the pre-gel period. If the cure pressure is
applied after the gel time, the resin may not be able to flow in the bleeding
cloth because of high viscosity.
• Maximum cure pressure should be applied just before the resin viscosity in
the top ply becomes sufficiently low for the resin flow to occur.

22
 8.2 Bag molding process (contd.)

• Common defects
• Voids
• Improper cure
• Defects related to ply lay-up
• Defects related to trimming operations
• Residual curing stresses
• Air, moisture, solvents absorbed/adsorbed during manufacturing
• Foreign matter, debris, broken filaments
• Filament crossovers

23
 8.3 Compression molding

• Uses
– Transforms sheet molding
compounds (SMC) into finished
products in matched molds.
– High-volume production of
composite parts.
• Advantages
– Parts of complex geometry in
short periods of time.
– Can incorporate non-uniform
thickness, ribs, bosses, flanges,
holes, and shoulders.
– Can eliminate secondary
finishing operations, such as
drilling, forming, and welding.

Sheet molding compounds (SMC): thin sheets of fibers, chopped or chopped and
continuous precompounded with a thermoset resin.

24
 8.3 Compression molding (contd.)

• Procedure
1. Placement of a precut and weighed amount of SMC (glass/polyester) onto the
bottom half of a preheated mold cavity (figure, next slide).
• Usually a stack of several rectangular plies called the charge.
• The ply dimensions are selected to cover 60 – 70% of the mold surface area.
2. Mold is closed quickly after the charge placement.
• Top half of the mold is lowered at a constant rate until the pressure on the
charge increases to a preset level.
3. With increasing pressure, the SMC material in the mold starts to flow and fill the
cavity.
• Flow of material is required to expel air entrapped in the mold as well as in the
charge.
• The molding pressure may vary from 1.4 to 34.5 MPa (200 – 3000psi). Mold
temperature is usually in the range of 130 – 160°C (270 – 320°F).
4. After a reasonable degree of cure is achieved under pressure, the mold is opened and
the part is removed, often with the aid of ejector pins.

25
8.3 Compression molding (contd.)

P.K. Mallick, “Fiber

Reinforced
Composites," Second
Edition, Marcel Dekker,
Inc., N.Y.,
p. 379 (1993).

Schematic of the compression molding process.

26
 8.3 Compression molding (contd.)

• Curing
– Begins at the surface,
progressing inwards.
– Occurs more rapidly at higher
mold temperature (figure),
however, peak exotherm
temperature
• May also increase (as in
E-glass laminates).
• 200°C or higher may
cause burning and
chemical degradation in
the resin.
• Avoid high molding temperatures P.K. Mallick, “Fiber Reinforced Composites," Second Edition,
Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., p. 381 (1993).
with thick parts.
27
 8.3 Compression molding (contd.)
Common surface defects in compression-molded SMC
Defect Possible contributing factors
Pinhole Coarse particles, particle agglomeration
Long-range waviness or ripple Resin shrinkage, glass fiber distribution
Craters Poor zinc stearate (used as a lubricant)
dispersion
Sink marks Resin shrinkage, fiber distribution, fiber
length, fiber orientation
Surface roughness Resin shrinkage, fiber bundle integrity, strand
dimensions, fiber distribution
Dark areas Styrene loss from the surface
Pop-up blisters in painted parts Subsurface voids due to trapped air and
volatiles

28
 8.3 Compression molding (contd.)
• Examples of common defects
a) Porosity
b) Blisters
c) Fibers oriented parallel to
edge (in SMC – R)
d) Buckling (in XMC or SMC –
CR, excessive resin flow in
the transverse direction)
e) Weld/knit lines
f) Sink marks (in resin rich
zone – CTE effect during
cooling). Note the fiber rich
zone in the rib base.

P.K. Mallick, “Fiber Reinforced Composites," Second Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., p. 385 (1993).

29
 8.3 Compression molding (contd.)

• Advantages
1. Offers high volume production.
2. Offers production of low cost components.
3. Process offers high surface quality and good styling possibilities.
• Limitations
1. Initial investment for equipment and mold is high.
2. Process not suitable for making small number of parts or for
prototyping applications.
3. Molding of SMC provides non-structural parts; but by
utilizing ribs and stiffners, structural members can be produced.

30
 8.4 Pultrusion

• Uses • Pultruded products

• Pultrusion is a continuous –Solid rods
molding process for producing
long, straight structural –Hollow tubes
members of constant cross-
–Flat sheets
sectional area.
–Various types of beams including
angle channels, hat sections, and wide-
flanged beams.
Recently pultruded processes have been
developed for producing variable cross-
sections and curved members.

31
 8.4 Pultrusion (contd.)
• Major constituents
– Longitudinally oriented
continuous strand rovings (CSR).
– Layers of mats or woven roving
added at/near outer surface
(figure), improving transverse
strength.
• Content
– Total fiber content in pultruded
parts can be as high as 70 wt.%.
– Mats and woven rovings lowers
longitudinal strength and
modulus compared to 0° fiber
strands.
P.K. Mallick, “Fiber Reinforced Composites,"
– Ratio of CSR and mats or woven Second Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., p. 388
rovings determines mechanical (1993).
properties.

32
 8.4 Pultrusion (contd.)
• Process
1. Polyester and vinyl ester are matrix materials.
2. Epoxies have also been used, they require longer cure time and do not
release readily from pultrusion die.
3. Application of thermoplastics (PEEK, Polysulfone) in pultrusion process
are under development.

P.K. Mallick, “Fiber Reinforced Composites," Second Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., p. 389 (1993

33
 8.4 Pultrusion (contd.)
(b)
(a)

(c)
(e)
(d)
• (a) Resin bath • (c) Preformer • (e) Pull blocks
–Resin –Distributes fiber bundles smoothly. –Pulls cured member.
–Curing agent –Squeezes out excess resin. –Once, through the pull
–Colorant • (d) Preheated die blocks, member is cooled in
air or with water.
–UV stabilizer –Final shaping and compaction occurs.
UV protection: carbon black
–Fire retardant –Curing takes place.
particles; Fire retardent:
• (b) Thermoplastic surfacing veil –Die length, die temp., and pulling alumina trihydrate
speed are controlled.
–Added to improve surface
smoothness. 34
P.K. Mallick, “Fiber Reinforced Composites," Second Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., p. 389 (1993).
 8.4 Pultrusion (contd.)

• Fiber wet-out is the most important factor controlling mechanical performance

of pultruded members.
• Wet-out depends on
– Initial resin viscosity.
– Residence time in bath.
– Mechanical action (looping of fibers) on fibers in bath.
– Lateral pressure at resin squeeze-out bushing.
– Slower line speed and lower viscosity (favors resin penetration).
– Higher line speed and higher viscosity (improves resin pickup amount
owing to increased drag force).
– Fiber and resin surface energies (determines amount of resin coating).

35
 8.4 Pultrusion (contd.)
• Resin viscosity (400 – 5000 cP)
– ≥ 5000 cP results in poor fiber wet-
out, slower line speed and fiber
breakage.
– ≤ 200 cP results in excessive resin
drainage.
• Temperature
– Figure shows temperature
distribution along the length of the
die.
– Location of exothermic peak
depends on the speed of pulling of
the fiber-resin system through the P.K. Mallick, “Fiber Reinforced Composites," Second
die. Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., p. 393 (1993).

Note: No external pressure is applied in pultrusion process. High internal pressure at

the die entrance zone is due to the volumetric expansion of resin. As curing proceeds
the pressure decreases.
36
 8.4 Pultrusion (contd.)

P.K. Mallick,
“Fiber Reinforced
Composites,”
Second Edition,
Marcel Dekker,
Inc., N.Y., p. 392
(1993).

• Viscosity change of a thermosetting resin in a pultrusion die.

• At die entrance, viscosity first decreases and then increases at a short distance
from the die entrance as resin cures.
37
 8.4 Pultrusion (contd.)
• Defects
• Defects found in pultruded products include:
– Fiber bunching
– Fiber shifting
– Folding of mats or woven rovings
– Wrinkles
• These are related to pulling force applied to overcome:
– Frictional forces of fibers against the die wall
– Shear viscous force between thin resin layer and die wall
– Drag resistance between fibers and back-flowing resin at the die entrance.
• In addition to the above, defects include:
– Interlaminar cracks
– Extent of fiber/matrix wetting
– Residual stresses

38
 8.4 Pultrusion (contd.)

Pultruded Parts

F.C. Campbell, “Manufacturing Processes for Advanced Composites,” Elsevier Inc., N.Y., p. 434 (2004).

39
 8.4 Pultrusion (contd.)

• Advantages
1. It is a continuous process and can be completely automated.
Suitable for high volume composite parts.
2. Utilizes low-cost fiber and resin systems.
• Limitations
1. Suitable for parts that have constant cross-sections along its
length. Tapered and complex shapes cannot be produced.
2. High tolerance parts cannot be produced.
3. Thin wall parts cannot be produced.

40
 8.5 Filament Winding

• Description • Uses
• A band of continuous Among the applications of filament winding
resin‑impregnated are:
roving or –Automotive drive shafts
monofilaments is –Helicopter blades
wrapped around a
rotating mandrel and –Oxygen tanks
cured to produce –Pipelines
axisymmetric hollow
–Spherical pressure vessels
parts.
–Conical rocket motor cases
–Large underground gasoline storage
tanks
–Prepregs
–XMCs
41
 •(b)
8.5 Filament Winding (contd.)
•(c) •(e) •(f)
•(d)

•(a)
(g)
• Helical winding process
a) Creels of fiber rovings.
b) Fiber tension controlled by fiber guides or scissor bars. •(h & i)

c) Rovings gathered into a band.

d) Resin bath tank (resin, catalyst, pigments, and UV
absorbers).
P.K. Mallick, “Fiber
e) Excess resin wiping device. Reinforced Composites,"
Second Edition, Marcel
f) Impregnated and wiped rovings gathered in a flat band. Dekker, Inc., N.Y., p. 395
(1993).
g) Carriage traverses back and forth parallel to mandrel.
h) Mandrel typical winding speed ranges from 90 – 110 linear
m/min.
i) After winding a number of layers to attain the desired
thickness, the part is cured on the mandrel and the mandrel is
then extracted from the cured part.
42
 8.5 Filament Winding (contd.)
• By adjusting the carriage feed and mandrel rotational speed, any wind angle
between 0° and 90° can be obtained. In polar winding, the carriage rotates
about the longitudinal axis of a stationary (but indexable) mandrel. After each
rotation of carriage, the mandrel is indexed to advance one fiber bandwidth.

Polar winding pattern.

P.K. Mallick, “Fiber Reinforced Composites," Second Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., p. 398 (1993).

43
 8.5 Filament Winding (contd.)

• Mandrel extraction
– Collapsible mandrels (segmented or inflatable) are used for products in
which the end enclosures are integrally wound, as in pressure vessels.
– For low volume productions, soluble plasters, eutectic salts, or low
melting alloys are used.

44
 8.5 Filament Winding (contd.)

Mechanical property variation in a filament-wound part as a function of wind

angle.
P.K. Mallick, “Fiber Reinforced Composites,” Second Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., p. 397 (1993).

45
 8.5 Filament Winding (contd.)

• With conventional filament

winding machines, the shapes
that can be created are limited
to surfaces of revolution, such
as cylinders, cones, box
beams, or spheroids (figure):
– Cross-sections of possible
filament-wound parts (a
and b).
– A cross-section that
cannot be filament wound P.K. Mallick,
(c). “Fiber Reinforced
Composites,”
Second Edition,
Marcel Dekker,
Inc., N.Y., p. 401
(1993).

46
 8.5 Filament Winding (contd.)

• Process parameters
– Fiber tension: Maintains fiber alignment and controls resin content.
– Fiber wet-out: Reduce voids.
– Resin content: Good mechanical properties, weight and thickness control.
• Material and process parameters to control fiber wet-out
– Viscosity of catalyzed resin in resin bath: Determines temperature and cure
advancement.
– Number of strands in roving: Determines resin accessibility to each strand.
– Fiber tension: Controls pressure on each layer or various layers.
– Speed of winding and the length of the resin bath.

47
 8.5 Filament Winding (contd.)

• Common defects
– Voids: May appear because of poor fiber wet‑out, the presence of air bubbles
in the resin bath, an improper band width resulting in gapping' or overlapping,
or excessive resin squeeze‑out from the interior layers caused by high winding
tension.
– Delaminations: In large filament­-wound parts, an excessive time lapse
between two consecutive layers of windings can result in delaminations,
especially if the resin has a limited pot life.
– Wrinkles: Result from improper winding tension and misaligned rovings.
• Note: Unstable fiber paths that cause fibers to slip on the mandrel may cause fibers
to bunch, bridge, and improperly orient in the wound part.

48
 8.5 Filament Winding (contd.)
• Advantages
1. For certain applications such as pressure vessels and fuel tanks, this is the
only process that can be used to produce cost-effective high performance
parts.
2. Utilizes low-cost raw materials and low-cost tooling.
3. Process can be automated for the production of high volume parts.
• Limitations
1. Limited to producing closed and convex structures.
2. Not all fiber angles are easily produced. Less than 15 degrees are not easily
produced (geodesic path is preferred for fiber stability).
3. Maximum fiber volume fraction attainable is only 60%.
4. Difficult to obtain uniform fiber distribution and resin content throughout the
thickness of the laminate.
49
 8.6.1 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
• RTM belongs to the general class of Liquid Composite Molding Processes.
• Advantages
– Ability to encapsulate metal inserts, stiffeners, washers, etc. within a
molded laminate. In liquid composite molding processes one does not use
prepregs.
– Can encapsulate a foam core between the top and bottom preforms of a
hollow part, which adds stiffness to the structure and allows molding of
complex three‑dimensional shapes in one piece.
• Uses: The RTM process has been successfully used in molding such parts

– Cabinet walls - Water tanks

– Chair or bench seats - Bathtubs
– Hoppers - Boat hulls

50
 8.6.1 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
(contd.)
• RTM (contd.)
• Process
1.Place layers of mat, woven roving, or cloth in bottom half of mold.
2.Close mold and inject liquid resin (polyester or vinyl ester resins are
commonly used for the RTM process) at pressures in the range of 69 – 690
kPa (10 – 100 psi). Resin spreads throughout the mold, displacing
entrapped air and impregnating fibers.
3.Curing is performed at room or elevated temperatures.
4.Cured part is pulled from mold and trimmed.
5.For short injection time and good quality parts: low viscosity (100 – 300
cP), high p, sufficient resin pot life, low volatile content, multiple
injection ports and vents.

51
 8.6.1 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
(contd.)
• RTM (contd.)

P.K. Mallick, “Fiber Reinforced Composites," Second Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., p. 405 (1993).

52
 8.6.1 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
(contd.)
• RTM (contd.)

Schematic of a Typical RTM Process

Line for Pressurizing Resin
Line for Vacuum Degassing Resin

Pressure Regulator
F. C. Campbell,
“Manufacturing
Processes for Advanced
Composites,” Elsevier
Inc., N.Y., p 333 (2004).

Composite Preform
To Vacuum Pump

Resin Trap Matched Die Mold Held Together

With Press Pressure, Clamps, or
Threaded Bolts

53
8.6.1 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
(contd.)
• RTM (contd.)
Edge Injection
• Resin injected at one end of the part
• Resin flows unidirectionally down the part
length
through the reninforcement
• Air is vented at the opposite end

Point Injection
• Resin introduced through a port at the center
• Resin flows radially into the reinforcement
• Air is vented at the periphery of the part

Peripheral Injection
• Resin injected into a channel around the periphery
of the part
• Resin flow is radially inwards
•Air is vented at the center of the part
F.C. Campbell, “Manufacturing Processes for Advanced Composites," Elsevier Inc., N.Y., p 334 (2004).
54
 8.6.1 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
(contd.)
• RTM (contd.)
• Earlier we saw that

q
Po  dp 
For short injection time and good quality parts

 
- Low viscosity resin
P0 
d 2
f 1  V  f
3

  dx  16 K V f2
- High p
- Multiple injection ports and vents
- Sufficient resin pot life
- Low volatile content

55
 8.6.1 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
(contd.)
• RTM (contd.)
•Using preforms
Instead of using flat reinforcing layers, such as a continuous strand mat,
the starting material in an RTM process can be a preform that already
has the shape of the desired product.
•Advantages of preforms
–Good moldability with complicated shapes (particularly with
deep draws).
–Elimination of the trimming operation, which is often the most
labor‑intensive step in an RTM process.

56
 8.6.1 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
(contd.)
• RTM (contd.)
• Preforms
 Spray-up on a pre-shaped screen – 0.5 to 3 in long fibers are mixed with
resin and sprayed on to the screen.
 Continuous strand mat containing random fibers used on a pre-shaped die.
 Woven fabrics stitched.
 Braided and textile weaving

57
8.6.1 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
(contd.)
• RTM (contd.)

F.C. Campbell,
“Manufacturing
Processes for
Advanced
Composites,"
Multiaxial Warp Knit 2-D Triaxial Braid Elsevier Inc., N.Y.,
(Stitched or Unstitched) (Stitched or Unstitched)
p 307 (2004).

Knitted or Stitched
3-D Braid

Advanced textile Material Forms – Multiaxial Wrap Knit, Triaxial Braid, 3-D
Braid, and Knitted/Stitched.
58
 8.6.1 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
(contd.)
• RTM (contd.)

Example of Preform and Liquid Molded Part

Fiberglass Preform

Liquid Molded Part

F. C. Campbell, “Manufacturing Processes for Advanced Composites,” Elsevier Inc., N.Y., p 329 (2004).

59
 8.6.1 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
(contd.)
• Vacuum Assisted Resin Transfer Molding (VARTM)

T y p ic a l V A R T M P r o c e s s S e tu p

L in e fo r V a c u u m D e g a s s in g R e s in
P rio r to In fu s io n
L in e to V a c u u m
P um p

R e s in S u p p ly
V acuum B ag

P o ro u s D is tr ib u tio n M e d ia

P o ro u s R e le a s e M a te r ia l
R e s in
T ra p

S e a la n t P re f o rm
Tape

T ool

F.C. Campbell, “Manufacturing Processes for Advanced Composites,” Elsevier Inc., N.Y., p 349 (2004).

60
8.6.1 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
(contd.)
• RTM and VARTM Processes (contd.)
• Advantages
1. Compared to compression molding and injection molding
processes initial tooling cost is low.
2. Moldings can be made close to dimensional tolerances.
3. Can make complex parts at intermediate volume rates.
4. Can provide parts with good surface finish on both sides.
5. Higher fiber volume fraction, up to 65%, can be achieved.
6. Inserts can be easily incorporated into moldings.
7. Allows low volatile emission during processing.
8. Offers production of near-net-shape parts.
9. Can be automated.

61
 8.6.1 Resin Transfer Molding (RTM)
(contd.)
• RTM and VARTM Processes (contd.)
• Limitations
1. Manufacture of complex parts requires a good amount of
trial and error experimentation.
2. Tooling and equipment cost are higher than hand lay-up
and spray-up processes.
3. The tooling design is complex.
• Some issues in RTM process are
- Resin flow
- Curing
- Heat transfer in porous media

62
8.6.2 Elastic Reservoir Molding (ERM)

• Process
• Placed in a heated mold, a sandwich of:
– Liquid resin-impregnated open-celled
foam.
– Face layers of dry continuous strand
mat, woven roving, or cloth.
• Sandwich foam:
– Usually flexible polyurethane.
– Acts as an elastic reservoir for the
catalyzed liquid resin.
• Compression and curing:
– The sandwich is pressed with 520 –
1030 kPa (75 – 150 psi).
– Resin flows out vertically and wets
the face layers. P.K. Mallick, “Fiber Reinforced
– Upon curing, a sandwich of low- Composites," Second Edition, Marcel
Dekker, Inc., N.Y., p. 409 (1993).
density core and fiber-reinforced skins
is formed.

63
 8.6.3 Tube Rolling

• Process
1. Precut lengths of a prepreg are rolled onto a removable mandrel.
2. The uncured tube is wrapped with a heat-shrinkable film or sleeve.
3. Cured at elevated temperatures in an air-circulating oven, as the outer wrap
shrinks, entrapped air is squeezed out the ends.
4. After curing, the mandrel is removed and a hollow tube is formed.
• Examples of products
– Circular tubes
– Space trusses
– Bicycle frames

64
 8.A Manufacturing processes for
thermoplastic composites
• The use of thermoplastic composites is becoming popular in aerospace and automotive
industries because of their toughness, higher production rates, and minimal
environmental concerns. In the commercial sector, the predominant thermoplastic
manufacturing techniques include injection molding, compression molding and, to some
degree, autoclave prepreg lay-up process. However, most of the manufacturing processes
for thermoset composites (e.g., filament winding and pultrusion) are also used for
thermoplastic composite parts.

• Critical differences between thermosets and thermoplastics processing

– Thermoplastic prepregs are not tacky (sticky).
– Thermoplastic prepregs are not very flexible.
– Processing temperatures and pressures of thermoplastics are much higher than
thermosets.
– Chemical reaction does not occur during processing of thermoplastics – they can be
shaped and formed repeatedly by the application of heat and pressure.

65
 8.A Manufacturing processes for
thermoplastic composites (contd.)
• Thermoplastics can be processed using metal-working forming techniques:
(a) Matched die forming
(b) Hydroforming
(c) Thermoforming

P.K. Mallick, “Fiber Reinforced Composites," Second Edition, Marcel Dekker, Inc., N.Y., p. 411 (1993).

66
 8.A Manufacturing processes for
thermoplastic composites (contd.)
• Thermoforming
• This is a common manufacturing technique for forming unreinforced thermoplastic sheets
into trays, cups, bathtubs, small boats, etc. When used for thermoplastic composites,
various layers of lay-up are consolidated into laminated sheet prior to thermoforming or
lay-up is pre-heated to forming temperature, placed in the mold, and formed in the mold
cavity by the application of vacuum, pressure or both. If consolidation takes place during
thermoforming, the forming temperature is close to the melt temperature of the polymer.
• In the forming operation of thermoplastic composites, the sheet is both stretched and
drawn into the final shape. However, since composites containing continuous fibers which
are inextensible, it is not possible to stretch the individual plies in the fiber direction
without breaking the fibers. Therefore, the composite lay-up cannot be clamped and fixed
at the edges. On the other hand, if the fibers are not in tension during forming, some of
them may wrinkle. To overcome this problem, the lay-up is placed between two thin,
highly deformable diaphragms (such as superplastic aluminum alloys and polyimide
films), which are clamped around their edges. As the forming pressure is applied, the
deformation of diaphragms creates a biaxial tension in the lay-up, which prevents the plues
from wrinkling.

67
 8.B Typical Manufacturing Defects

In composites, the range of flaws, which may be present and need to be detected is much
larger and may include:

–State of cure –Fiber bunching

–Volume fraction –Improper cure of laminates
–Orientation of fibers/lay-up –Fiber buckling
–Strength of bonded joints –Knit or weld lines
–De-lamination –Warpage
–Fiber/matrix interface condition –Fiber wrinkles
–Interlaminar cracks –Residual curing stresses
–Inclusions –Fibers oriented parallel to the edge in
–Porosity/voids SMC-R compression molded parts
–Surface flaws (cracking, gel coat –Sink marks
blisters, etc.) –Defects related to ply lay-up and
trimming operations

68
 8.B Typical Manufacturing Defects
(contd.)
• Spring - In
In epoxies, volumetric shrinkage on the order of 1% to 6% occurs as they
cure. Whereas the fiber reinforcement tends to limit this effect in the in ‑plane
direction, the through-thickness shrinkage is largely unrestrained. In flat
symmetric laminates, this has little effect, but in curved parts, it contributes to
spring‑in effect. This can be illustrated by considering a laminate with a bend
that is compressed through its thickness. If the bend angle is constrained
during compression, the inside ply will be compressed while the outside ply is
stretched. Spring‑in results when the imposed constraint is removed. It is
therefore necessary to compensate for or accommodate spring ‑in by adjusting
the tool angle outwards by 1 to 5, as shown in the figure in the next slide.
The degree of compensation required is somewhat dependent on the actual
laminate layup orientation and the laminate thickness.

69
8.B Typical Manufacturing Defects
(contd.)

Low in-plane CTE

High out-of-plane CTE

Spring‑In in a Composite Part

F.C. Campbell, “Manufacturing Processes for Advanced Composites,” Elsevier Inc., N.Y., p. 213 (2004).

70
8.B Typical Manufacturing Defects
(contd.)

Spring‑In Correction Factors

F. C. Campbell, “Manufacturing Processes for Advanced Composites,” Elsevier Inc., N.Y., p. 113 (2004).

71
 8.C Tooling considerations
• What is the function of tooling in the manufacture of PMC parts?
• Tooling provides a mechanism to give a part the desired shape at the end of the mold
cycle.
• What single property should be considered as a critical factor in the choice of tool
materials?
• The single property considered as a critical factor in the choice of tool materials is the
match or differences in the coefficient of thermal expansion between the tool material and
the composite part to be processed.
• What are the three different types of materials used as autoclave tools?
• Three autoclave tool materials include metals, composites, and metal-coated composites.
• What are the consequences of choosing improper tool materials?
• Differences in the coefficients of thermal expansion between the mold and the composite
part can cause stresses in the part and in the extreme cases cracking of the part may occur.
These stresses could also result in the dimensional changes or size of the part.
Thermal correction for molds  Engr. dimension x (CTEp – CTEt) x (Tgel – Troom)

72