Software Design

Software design is a mechanism to transform user requirements into some

suitable form, which helps the programmer in software coding and
implementation.

It deals with representing the client's requirement, as described in SRS

(Software Requirement Specification) document, into a form, i.e., easily
implementable using programming language.

The software design phase is the first step in SDLC (Software Design Life
Cycle), which moves the concentration from the problem domain to the
solution domain.

In software design, we consider the system to be a set of components or

modules with clearly defined behaviors & boundaries.
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Objectives of Software Design

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Objectives of Software Design

Correctness: Software design should be correct as per requirement.

Completeness: The design should have all components like data structures,
modules, and external interfaces, etc.

Efficiency: Resources should be used efficiently by the program.

Flexibility: Able to modify on changing needs.

Consistency: There should not be any inconsistency in the design.

Maintainability: The design should be so simple so that it can be easily

maintainable by other designers.
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Software Design Principles

Software design principles are concerned with providing means to handle the
complexity of the design process effectively. Effectively managing the
complexity will not only reduce the effort needed for design but can also reduce
the scope of introducing errors during design.
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Software Design Principles

Problem Partitioning

For small problem, we can handle the entire problem at once but for the
significant problem, divide the problems and conquer the problem it means to
divide the problem into smaller pieces so that each piece can be captured
separately.

For software design, the goal is to divide the problem into manageable pieces.
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Software Design Principles

Problem Partitioning
Benefits of Problem Partitioning
• Software is easy to understand
• Software becomes simple
• Software is easy to test
• Software is easy to modify
• Software is easy to maintain
• Software is easy to expand
These pieces cannot be entirely
independent of each other as they
together form the system. They have to
cooperate and communicate to solve the
problem. This communication adds
complexity.

Number of partition increases = Cost of partition and complexity increases

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Software Design Principles

Abstraction

An abstraction is a tool that enables a designer to consider a component at an

abstract level without bothering about the internal details of the
implementation. Abstraction can be used for existing element as well as the
component being designed.

Here, there are two common abstraction mechanisms

• Functional Abstraction

• Data Abstraction
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Software Design Principles

Abstraction

• Functional Abstraction
a) A module is specified by the method it performs.
b) The details of the algorithm to accomplish the functions are not
visible to the user of the function.

Functional abstraction forms the basis for Function oriented design

approaches.

• Data Abstraction
Details of the data elements are not visible to the users of data. Data
Abstraction forms the basis for Object Oriented design approaches.
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Software Design Principles

Modularity

Modularity specifies to the division of software into separate modules which

are differently named and addressed and are integrated later on in to obtain the
completely functional software.

It is the only property that allows a program to be intellectually manageable.

Single large programs are difficult to understand and read due to a large
number of reference variables, control paths, global variables, etc.
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Software Design Principles

Modularity

The desirable properties of a modular system are:

• Each module is a well-defined system that can be used with other

applications.

• Each module has single specified objectives.

• Modules can be separately compiled and saved in the library.

• Modules should be easier to use than to build.

• Modules are simpler from outside than inside.

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Modularity Software Design Principles

Advantages of Modularity:
• It allows large programs to be written by several or different people

• It encourages the creation of commonly used routines to be placed in the

library and used by other programs.

• It simplifies the overlay procedure of loading a large program into main

storage.

• It provides more checkpoints to measure progress.

• It provides a framework for complete testing, more accessible to test

• It produced the well designed and more readable program.

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Modularity Software Design Principles

Disadvantages of Modularity
• There are several disadvantages of Modularity

• Execution time maybe, but not certainly, longer

• Storage size perhaps, but is not certainly, increased

• Compilation and loading time may be longer

• Inter-module communication problems may be increased

• More linkage required, run-time may be longer, more source lines must be
written, and more documentation has to be done
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Software Design Principles
Modularity

Modular Design
Modular design reduces the design complexity and results in easier and
faster implementation by allowing parallel development of various parts of
a system.

a) Functional Independence: Functional independence is achieved by

developing functions that perform only one kind of task and do not
excessively interact with other modules. Independence is important
because it makes implementation more accessible and faster. The
independent modules are easier to maintain, test, and reduce error
propagation and can be reused in other programs as well. Thus,
functional independence is a good design feature which ensures
software quality.
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Software Design Principles
Modularity

• It is measured using two criteria:

Cohesion: It measures the relative function strength of a module.

 Coupling: It measures the relative interdependence among modules.

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Software Design Principles
Modularity

b) Information hiding: The fundamental of Information hiding suggests

that modules can be characterized by the design decisions that protect
from the others, i.e., In other words, modules should be specified that
data include within a module is inaccessible to other modules that do
not need for such information.

The use of information hiding as design criteria for modular system

provides the most significant benefits when modifications are required
during testing's and later during software maintenance. This is because
as most data and procedures are hidden from other parts of the
software, inadvertent errors introduced during modifications are less
likely to propagate to different locations within the software.
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Software Design Principles
Strategy of Design

A good system design strategy is to organize the program modules in such a

method that are easy to develop and latter too, change.

Structured design methods help developers to deal with the size and
complexity of programs.

Analysts generate instructions for the developers about how code should be
composed and how pieces of code should fit together to form a program.

To design a system, there are two possible approaches:

Top-down Approach

Bottom-up Approach
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Software Design Principles
Strategy of Design

Top-down Approach: This approach starts with the identification of the

main components and then decomposing them into their more detailed sub-
components.
 Software Design
Software Design Principles
Strategy of Design

Bottom-up Approach: A bottom-up approach begins with the lower

details and moves towards up the hierarchy, as shown in fig. This approach
is suitable in case of an existing system.
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Coupling and Cohesion
Module Coupling

In software engineering, the coupling is the degree of interdependence

between software modules.

Two modules that are tightly coupled are strongly dependent on each other.

However, two modules that are loosely coupled are less dependent on each
other.

Uncoupled modules have no interdependence at all within them.

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Coupling and Cohesion
Module Coupling

The various types of coupling techniques on the basis of dependency are:

 Software Design
Coupling and Cohesion
Module Coupling
A good design is the one that has low coupling.

Coupling is measured by the number of relations between the modules.

That is, the coupling increases as the number of calls between modules increase
or the amount of shared data is large.

Thus, it can be said that a design with high coupling will have more errors.
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Coupling and Cohesion
Module Coupling
Types of Module Coupling
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Coupling and Cohesion
Module Coupling
Types of Module Coupling

 No Direct Coupling: There is no direct coupling between M1 and M2. In

this case, modules are subordinates to different modules. Therefore, no
direct coupling.
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Coupling and Cohesion
Module Coupling
Types of Module Coupling

 Data Coupling: When data of one module is passed to another module,

this is called data coupling.
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Coupling and Cohesion
Module Coupling
Types of Module Coupling
 Stamp Coupling: Two modules are stamp coupled if they communicate
using composite data items such as structure, objects, etc. When the module
passes non-global data structure or entire structure to another module, they
are said to be stamp coupled. For example, passing structure variable in C
or object in C++ language to a module.

 Control Coupling: Control Coupling exists among two modules if data

from one module is used to direct the structure of instruction execution in
another.
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Coupling and Cohesion
Module Coupling
Types of Module Coupling
 External Coupling: External Coupling arises when two modules share an
externally imposed data format, communication protocols, or device
interface. This is related to communication to external tools and devices.

Common Coupling: Two modules are common coupled if they share

information through some global data items.
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Coupling and Cohesion
Module Coupling

Types of Module Coupling

Content Coupling: Content Coupling exists among two modules if they

share code, e.g., a branch from one module into another module.
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Coupling and Cohesion
Module Cohesion

In computer programming, cohesion defines to the degree to which the

elements of a module belong together.

Thus, cohesion measures the strength of relationships between pieces of

functionality within a given module.

For example, in highly cohesive systems, functionality is strongly related.

Cohesion is an ordinal type of measurement and is generally described as

"high cohesion" or "low cohesion."
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Coupling and Cohesion
Module Cohesion High Cohesion

Types of cohesion on the basis of strength Low Cohesion

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Coupling and Cohesion
Module Cohesion
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Coupling and Cohesion
Module Cohesion
Types of Modules Cohesion
Functional Cohesion: Functional Cohesion is said to exist if the different
elements of a module, cooperate to achieve a single function.

Sequential Cohesion: A module is said to possess sequential cohesion if

the element of a module form the components of the sequence, where the
output from one component of the sequence is input to the next.

Communicational Cohesion: A module is said to have communicational

cohesion, if all tasks of the module refer to or update the same data
structure, e.g., the set of functions defined on an array or a stack.
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Coupling and Cohesion
Module Cohesion
Types of Modules Cohesion

Procedural Cohesion: A module is said to be procedural cohesion if the

set of purpose of the module are all parts of a procedure in which particular
sequence of steps has to be carried out for achieving a goal, e.g., the
algorithm for decoding a message.

Temporal Cohesion: When a module includes functions that are

associated by the fact that all the methods must be executed in the same
time, the module is said to exhibit temporal cohesion.
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Coupling and Cohesion
Module Cohesion
Types of Modules Cohesion

Logical Cohesion: A module is said to be logically cohesive if all the

elements of the module perform a similar operation. For example Error
handling, data input and data output, etc.

Coincidental Cohesion: A module is said to have coincidental cohesion if

it performs a set of tasks that are associated with each other very loosely, if
at all.
 Software Design
Differentiate between Coupling and Cohesion
Coupling Cohesion
Coupling is also called Inter- Cohesion is also called Intra-Module
Module Binding. Binding.
Coupling shows the relationships Cohesion shows the relationship within the
between modules. module.
Coupling shows the Cohesion shows the module's
relative independence between relative functional strength.
the modules.
While creating, you should aim While creating you should aim for high
for low coupling, i.e., dependency cohesion, i.e., a cohesive component/
among modules should be less. module focuses on a single function (i.e.,
single-mindedness) with little interaction
with other modules of the system.

In coupling, modules are linked to In cohesion, the module focuses on a single

the other modules. thing.
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Function Oriented Design
Function Oriented design is a method to software design where the model is
decomposed into a set of interacting units or modules where each unit or
module has a clearly defined function. Thus, the system is designed from a
functional viewpoint.

Design Notations

• Design Notations are primarily meant to be used during the process of

design and are used to represent design or design decisions.

• For a function-oriented design, the design can be represented graphically or

mathematically by the following:
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Function Oriented Design
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Data Flow Diagram Function Oriented Design

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Function Oriented Design
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Function Oriented Design
Structured Charts

It partitions a system into block boxes. A Black box system that functionality is
known to the user without the knowledge of internal design.
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Function Oriented Design
Structured Charts

Structured Chart is a graphical representation which shows:

 System partitions into modules

 Hierarchy of component modules

 The relation between processing modules

 Interaction between modules

 Information passed between modules

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Function Oriented Design
Structured Charts

The following notations are used in structured chart:

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Function Oriented Design
Pseudo-code

Pseudo-code notations can be used in both the preliminary and detailed design
phases. Using pseudo-code, the designer describes system characteristics using
short, concise, English Language phrases that are structured by keywords such
as If-Then-Else, While-Do, and End.
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Object-Oriented Design
In the object-oriented design method, the system is viewed as a collection of
objects (i.e., entities).The state is distributed among the objects, and each object
handles its state data.

For example, in a Library Automation Software, each library representative

may be a separate object with its data and functions to operate on these
data.The tasks defined for one purpose cannot refer or change data of other
objects.

Objects have their internal data which represent their state.

Similar objects create a class. In other words, each object is a member of

some class. Classes may inherit features from the superclass.
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Object-Oriented Design
The different terms related to object design are:
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Object-Oriented Design
The different terms related to object design are:
Objects: All entities involved in the solution design are known as objects.
For example, person, banks, company, and users are considered as objects.
Every entity has some attributes associated with it and has some methods to
perform on the attributes.

Classes: A class is a generalized description of an object. An object is an

instance of a class. A class defines all the attributes, which an object can
have and methods, which represents the functionality of the object.

Messages: Objects communicate by message passing. Messages consist of

the integrity of the target object, the name of the requested operation, and
any other action needed to perform the function. Messages are often
implemented as procedure or function calls.
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Object-Oriented Design
The different terms related to object design are:
Abstraction In object-oriented design, complexity is handled using
abstraction. Abstraction is the removal of the irrelevant and the
amplification of the essentials.

Encapsulation: Encapsulation is also called an information hiding

concept. The data and operations are linked to a single unit. Encapsulation
not only bundles essential information of an object together but also
restricts access to the data and methods from the outside world.
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Object-Oriented Design
The different terms related to object design are:
Inheritance: OOD allows similar classes to stack up in a hierarchical
manner where the lower or sub-classes can import, implement, and re-use
allowed variables and functions from their immediate superclasses.This
property of OOD is called an inheritance. This makes it easier to define a
specific class and to create generalized classes from specific ones.

Polymorphism: OOD languages provide a mechanism where methods

performing similar tasks but vary in arguments, can be assigned the same
name. This is known as polymorphism, which allows a single interface is
performing functions for different types. Depending upon how the service
is invoked, the respective portion of the code gets executed.
 Software Design
User Interface Design

It is the visual part of a computer application or operating system through

which a client interacts with a computer or software.

It determines how commands are given to the computer or the program and
how data is displayed on the screen.

There are two main types of User Interface:

 Text-Based User Interface or Command Line Interface

Graphical User Interface (GUI)

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User Interface Design

 Text-Based User Interface: This method relies primarily on the keyboard.

A typical example of this is UNIX.

 Advantages
• Many and easier to customizations options.

• Typically capable of more important tasks.

 Disadvantages
• Relies heavily on recall rather than recognition.

• Navigation is often more difficult.

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User Interface Design
Graphical User Interface (GUI): GUI relies much more heavily on the
mouse. A typical example of this type of interface is any versions of the
Windows operating systems.

 GUI Characteristics
Char Descriptions
Windows Multiple windows allow different information to be displayed
simultaneously on the user's screen.
Icons Icons different types of information. On some systems, icons
represent files. On other icons describes processes.
Menus Commands are selected from a menu rather than typed in a
command language.
Pointing A pointing device such as a mouse is used for selecting choices
from a menu or indicating items of interests in a window.
Graphics Graphics elements can be mixed with text or the same display.
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User Interface Design

 Advantages
• Less expert knowledge is required to use it.

• Easier to Navigate and can look through folders quickly in a guess

and check manner.

• The user may switch quickly from one task to another and can
interact with several different applications.

 Disadvantages
• Typically decreased options.

• Usually less customizable. Not easy to use one button for tons of
different variations.
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User Interface Design

UI Design
Principles
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User Interface Design
UI Design
Principles
 Structure: Design should organize the user interface purposefully, in the
meaningful and usual based on precise, consistent models that are apparent and
recognizable to users, putting related things together and separating unrelated
things, differentiating dissimilar things and making similar things resemble one
another. The structure principle is concerned with overall user interface
architecture.

Simplicity: The design should make the simple, common task easy,

communicating clearly and directly in the user's language, and providing good
shortcuts that are meaningfully related to longer procedures.
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User Interface Design
UI Design
Principles
 Visibility: The design should make all required options and materials for a
given function visible without distracting the user with extraneous or redundant
data.

 Feedback: The design should keep users informed of actions or

interpretation, changes of state or condition, and bugs or exceptions that are
relevant and of interest to the user through clear, concise, and unambiguous
language familiar to users.

 Tolerance: The design should be flexible and tolerant, decreasing the cost of

errors and misuse by allowing undoing and redoing while also preventing bugs
wherever possible by tolerating varied inputs and sequences and by interpreting
all reasonable actions.