CURRICULUM

DEVELOPMENT AND
EVALUATION WITH
EMPHASIS ON TRAINERS’
METHODOLOGY

Mr. Cristopher S.J. Alpasa

Concepts, Nature and
Purposes of
Curriculum
INTRODUCTION
TO
CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT
 In education, a curriculum is
broadly defined as the totality of
Definition student experiences that occur in
the educational process. The term
of often refers specifically to a
Curriculu planned sequence of instruction, or
to a view of the student's
m experiences in terms of the
educator's or school's instructional
goals. Wikipedia
 Curriculum development is
defined as planned, a purposeful,
Definition progressive, and systematic
of process to create positive
Curriculu improvements in the educational
system. Every time there are
m changes or developments
Developm happening around the world, the
school curricula are affected.
ent There is a need to update them to
address the society’s needs.
 Curriculum development can be defined as the
step-by-step process used to create positive
Definition improvements in the courses offered by a
school, college or university. The world changes
of every day and new discoveries have to be roped
Curriculu into the education curricula. Innovative
teaching techniques and strategies (such as
m active learning or blended learning) are
Developm constantly being devised in order to improve
the student learning experience. As a result, an
ent institution has to have a plan in place for
acknowledging these shifts and then be able to
implement them in the school curriculum.
 Curriculum planning involves the
implementation of different types of
instructional strategies and
organizational methods that are
Curriculu focused on achieving optimal student
development and student learning
m outcomes. Instructors might structure
planning their curriculum around daily lesson
plans, a specific assignment, a chunk
of coursework, certain units within a
class, or an entire educational
program.
 During the curriculum planning phase,
teachers consider factors that might
complement or hinder their lesson
curriculum. These include institutional
requirements. Each administrator at a
Curriculu university or college will have guidelines,
m principles and a framework that
instructors are required to reference as
planning they build out their curriculums. Educators
are responsible for ensuring that their
curriculum planning meets the students‟
educational needs, and that the materials
used are current and comprehensible.
Educators should employ the curriculum process that best incorporates the
six components of effective teaching. These components are applicable at
both the undergraduate and graduate level:
To demonstrate knowledge of content;
To demonstrate the knowledge of students;
Select suitable instructional strategy goals;
To demonstrate knowledge of resources;
To design coherent instruction;
Assess student learning.
Curriculu 1. Traditional Points of View of
Curriculum
m from o body of subjects or subject matter
Different o Course of study and syllabus
Points of o Written documents or a plan of
View action in accomplishing goals
 a. Robin M. Hutchins – permanent studies
(basic education)
Curriculu b. Arthur Bestor – an essentialist - mission
of the school should be intellectual
m from training - should focus on the fundamental
Different intellectual disciplines

Points of c. Joseph Schwab – academic discipline

(ruling doctrine) is the sole source of
View curriculum - divided into chunks of
knowledge
d. Phenix – consist entirely of knowledge
 2. Progressive Points of View of
Curriculu Curriculum
m from o Progressivist point of view –
listing of school subjects, etc…do
Different not make a curriculum
Points of o can only be called curriculum if
View the written materials are
actualized by the learner
 a. John Dewey‟s definition of
experience and education
Curriculu
m from
Reflective thinking is a means
Different that unifies curricular elements.
Points of
View Thought is not derived from
action but tested by application
 b. Caswell and Campbell – all
experiences of children have under
Curriculu the guidance of teachers
m from
Different Shared by Smith, Stanley and Shores
Points of ( sequence of potential experiences
set up in the schools for the purpose
View of disciplining children and youth in
group ways of thinking and acting).
Curriculu c. Marsh and Willis –
m from experiences in the
classroom which are
Different
planned and enacted by the
Points of teacher, and also learned by
View the students
Points of Development
View on
Curriculu – connotes changes which are
systematic
m
Developm -Should be purposeful, planned
ent and progressive
 1. Ralph Tyler – Four Basic Principles /
Points of Questions
View on a. What educational purposes should
Curriculum the school seek to attain?
b. What educational experiences can be
Developme provided that are likely to attain these
nt purposes?
c. How can these educational
2 models: experiences be effectively organized? d.
How can we determine whether these
purposes are being attained or not?
 2. Hilda Taba – linear model - advocacy was
Points of grassroots approach –
7 major steps:
View on a. Diagnosis of learners‟ needs and
Curriculum expectations of larger society
b. Formulation of learning objectives
Developme c. Selection of learning content
nt d. Organization of learning content
2 models: e. Selection of learning experiences
f. Organization of learning activities
g. Determination of what to evaluate and the
means of doing it
The three The three interacting
interacting processes in curriculum
processes development are
in a. planning
curriculum
developme b. implementing
nt are c. evaluating
Types of 1. Written Curriculum – appears in school,
Curriculum district, division or country documents
Operating in course of study or syllabi
Schools - made by curriculum experts with
Described by participation of teachers
Allan Glatthorn pilot-tested or tried out
(2000)  e.g. BEC, written lesson plan (with
WHAT SLR? objectives and planned activities)
Types of 2. Hidden Curriculum - unintended curriculum
Curriculum
Operating in not deliberately planned but may modify
behaviour or influence learning outcomes
Schools -
Described by e.g. peer influence, school environment,
physical condition, teacher-learner interaction,
Allan Glatthorn mood of the teachers
(2000) (NOT TAUGHT BUT LEARNED) E.g. Falling in love
WHAT SLR? I learned to love you “Chos”
Types of 3. Assessed Curriculum – which is
Curriculum tested and evaluated
Operating in
Schools -  series of evaluations (to
Described by determine the extent of teaching
Allan Glatthorn or to tell if the students are
(2000) progressing)
WHAT SLR? assessment tools (PPT, portfolio)
 4. Taught Curriculum – what teachers
Types of implement or deliver in the
Curriculum classrooms and schools
Operating in
oactivities are put into action in order
Schools -
Described by to arrive at the objectives or purposes
of the written curriculum
Allan Glatthorn
(2000) ovaries according to the learning
WHAT SLR? styles of students and the teaching
styles of teachers
Types of 5. Supported Curriculum
Curriculum
Operating in a. -resources – textbooks,
Schools - computers, audio-visual
Described by
Allan Glatthorn
materials, lab equipment,
(2000) playground, zoos, and other
WHAT SLR? facilities
 6. Learned Curriculum – when
Types of
Curriculum the students actually learn and
Operating in what is measured
Schools -  learning outcomes (results of
Described by the tests and changes in
Allan Glatthorn
(2000) behaviour – COGNITIVE,
WHAT SLR? AFFECTIVE, OR PSYCHOMOTOR)
achieved by the students
Types of
Curriculum 7. Recommended Curriculum
Operating in proposed by scholars and
Schools -
Described by professional organizations
Allan Glatthorn  DepEd, CHED, DOST, PAFTE,
(2000) BIOTA
WHAT SLR?
 A. Philosophical – aim/role/focus/curriculum
trends ON Perennialism, Essentialism,
Major Progressivism, and Reconstructionism
Foundations of - helps in answering what schools are for, what
Curriculum subjects are important, how students should
(commonly learn and what materials and methods should
be used
accepted - in decision making, philosophy provides the
foundations) starting point
A. - life experiences, common beliefs, social and
Philosophical economic background and education e.g. John
Dewey (1916) looks at “education as a way of
life” “Learning by Doing”
Major - Ralph Tyler‟s framework of Philosophy in Relation to
Foundations of School Purposes
use of philosophy
Curriculum use of psychology of learning
(commonly studies of contemporary life
accepted suggestions from subject specialists
foundations) studies of learners
 B. Historical
Major a. Franklin Bobbit -“The Curriculum” 1918
Foundations of -presented science as curriculum
Curriculum -prepares students for adult life
(commonly -objectives with corresponding activities should
accepted be grouped and sequenced
foundations) b. Werret Charters - presented science as
B. Historical curriculum
-listing of objectives match with corresponding
activities
-teacher plans the content and activities
 c. William Kilpatrick – purposeful activities
-child-centered
Major -both teacher and student plan the activities
Foundations of -develops social relationships and small group
Curriculum instruction
(commonly d. Harold Rugg- develop the whole child (child-
accepted centered)
foundations) -should produce OUTCOMES
-emphasized social studies
-teacher plans curriculum in advance
 e. Hollis Caswell – organized curriculum
around social functions
Major -set of experiences and learner‟s interest
Foundations of f. Ralph Tyler – science; extension of
Curriculum school‟s philosophy
(commonly -based on students‟ needs -related to
accepted instruction
foundations) -organized subject matter and emphasized
problem solving
-to educate generalists and not specialists
Major C. Psychological – Behaviorist,
Foundations of Cognitive, and Humanistic; unifies
Curriculum elements of the learning process
(commonly -how should curriculum be organized
accepted to enhance learning?
foundations) -what is the optimum level of
C. students‟ participation in learning
Psychological various contents of the curriculum?
Major
Foundations of Behaviorist Psychology - association
Curriculum a. Edward Thorndike – connectionism;
influenced Tyler and Taba
(commonly
accepted b. Ivan Pavlov – classical conditioning
foundations) c. B.F.Skinner – operant conditioning
C. d. Albert Bandura- modelling and
observation theory
Psychological
Major e. Robert Gagne – hierarchical learning or
Foundations of sets of behaviour and five learning
Curriculum outcomes
(commonly *intellectual skills or “knowing how”
accepted *information or “knowing what”
*cognitive strategies or learning skills
foundations) *motor skills
C. *attitudes, feelings and emotions learned
Psychological through experiences
 Cognitive Psychology
Major
Foundations of -how do learners store information?
Curriculum -how do they retrieve data and
(commonly generate conclusions?
accepted -how they monitor and manage
foundations) thinking
C. -logical method of organizing and
Psychological interpreting learning that is rooted in
the tradition of subject matter
 a. Jean Piaget – Cognitive
Major development stages
Foundations of b. Lev Vygotsky – Social
Curriculum constructivism
(commonly c. Howard Gardner – Multiple
accepted intelligences –
foundations) d. Felder and Silverman –learning
C. styles
Psychological
e. Daniel and Goleman –
Emotional intelligences
Major Humanistic Psychology
Foundations of -how learners can develop their
Curriculum human potential
(commonly -not recognized by traditional
accepted psychologists
foundations) -concerned with the PROCESS,
C. PERSONAL NEEDS, PSYCHOLOGICAL
Psychological MEANING AND ENVIRONMENTAL
SITUATIONS
Major
Foundations of
Curriculum -Gestalt psychology- wholeness of the
(commonly problem
accepted a. Abraham Maslow – human needs
foundations) b. Carl Rogers- non-directive lives
C.
Psychological
Major
Social
Foundations of
Curriculum Schools -address more complex
(commonly and interrelated societies and the
accepted world
foundations) - address diversity, explosion of
C. knowledge, school reforms and
Psychological education for all
Major Relationship of curriculum and
Foundations of society:
Curriculum -curricula should reflect and preserve
(commonly the culture of society and its
accepted aspirations
foundations) -society should also imbibe the
C. changes brought about by the formal
Psychological institutions called schools
 Elements/Components of the Curriculum
1. aims, goals, and objectives – what is to
be done?
Components of 2. subject matter/content
Curriculum and 3. learning experiences – what
Curricular instructional strategies, resources and
Approaches activities will be employed?
4. evaluation approaches – what methods
and instruments will be used to assess the
results of the curriculum?
 -Based on the Philippine Constitution of 1987,
all schools shall aim to…
-aims of Elementary Education (Education Act
of 1982) include KSV, learning experiences, love
Components of for the nation, and promote work experiences
Curriculum and -aims of Secondary Education promote the
Curricular objectives of Elementary Education and
enhance different attitudes and interest of
Approaches students in order to equip them with skills…in
Component 1 preparation for tertiary schooling
-aims of Tertiary Education contain general
education programs, manpower/skills,
leadership, and application of knowledge
-hence, each school is guided by VMGs
 -VISION – what the institution
would like to become in the
Components of future; guiding post/unifying
Curriculum and elements -e.g. A model
Curricular performing high school where
Approaches students are equipped with
knowledge, skills and strength of
Component 1
character to realize their potential
to the fullest
(PANANAW)
 -MISSION- how intends to carry out its
Components of VISION -to produce the kind of
Curriculum and persons the students will become
after having been educated over a
Curricular certain period of time. -e.g. To
Approaches produce a globally competitive
Component 1 lifelong learners
(MISYON)
Components of -GOALS- broad statements to be
Curriculum and accomplished
Curricular -e.g. Build a strong foundation of skills and
Approaches concepts
Component 1 (TARGET)
 -EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES
- simple and specific! And as defined by
Benjamin Bloom and Robert Mager in two
Components of ways:
Curriculum and 1. explicit formulation of the ways in which
students are expected to be changed by the
Curricular educative process
Approaches 2. intent communicated by statement
Component 1 describing a proposed change in learners -direct
the change in behaviour -provide for the bases
for the selection of learning content and
learning experiences -set the criteria against
which learning outcomes will be evaluated
 3 Domains of Objectives:
1. Cognitive (Bloom) -domain of thought
process (KCAASE)
a. Knowledge – recall/remembering; lowest
cognitive level
3 Domains of b. Comprehension – ability to grasp; lowest
Objectives: form of understanding
c. Application – ability to use learned material
d. Analysis – ability to break down material
e. Synthesis- ability to put parts together
f. Evaluation- ability to pass judgment
Cognitive = Knowledge
 2. Affective (Krathwohl)
-domain of valuing, attitude and
appreciation (RRVOV) a. Receiving-
willingness to pay attention
b. Responding- active participation
3 Domains of
Objectives: c. Valuing- worth or value
d. Organization- building a value system
e. Value complex OR characterization by a
value – developing a lifestyle from a value
system
Affective = Values
 3. Psychomotor (Simpson)
-domain of the use of psychomotor attributes (PSGMCAO)
a. Perception – use of sense to guide motor activities
b. Set- readiness
3 Domains c. Guided response – concerned with the early stages in
of learning complex skills. Imitation and trial and error are
some of the ways of doing
Objectives: d. Mechanism – habitual responses; performance skills
e. Complex overt responses – complex movement patterns
f. Adaptation – ability to modify is very easy
g. Origination – creativity
Psychomotor = skills
 Component 2
-all curricula have content regardless of their
design or models
-compendium of facts, concepts generalization,
principles and theories
Component 2 -repository of accumulated knowledge
discoveries and inventions of man
- Jerome Bruner
– knowledge is a model we construct to give
meaning and structure to regularities in
experience
-e.g. each subject area has its own content
 1. Self-sufficiency – the prime guiding
Content principle (Scheffler); less teaching and
selection – a learning efforts (economical) but more
very crucial results and effective LEARNING
OUTCOMES
stage in
2. Significance – a contribution …to
Curriculum achieve the overall aim of the curriculum
Development - significant if it will develop learning
Criteria: abilities…develop 3 domains of objectives,
culture is considered
Content
selection – a 3. validity- authentic, verified/checked
very crucial 4. interest- learner-centered curriculum
stage in 5. Utility – usefulness
Curriculum 6. Learnability – 2 ways: optimal placement and
appropriate organization and sequencing of
Development contents
Criteria:
 7. Feasibility – can the content be learned
Content within the time allowed, resources available,
expertise of the teacher, and the nature of the
selection – a learners? Other considerations in the selection
very crucial of the learning content: a. used in daily life
stage in b. maturity and abilities of students
Curriculum c. valuable in meeting the needs
Development d. related with other subject areas
Criteria: e. transfer of learning In organizing or putting
together the different learning contents Palma
(1992) suggested the following principles:
 1. Balance – curriculum content is fairly distributed in
depth of the particular learning area or discipline; to
ensure that the level or area will not be overcrowded or
less crowded
2. Articulation – smoothly connected to the next; glaring
gaps and wasteful overlaps will be avoided -enhanced
contents in the curriculum due to teamwork among
Remember teachers
BASIC!!! 3. Sequence – logical arrangement of the subject matter;
deepening and broadening of content as it is taken up in
the higher levels
4. Integration – horizontal connections; related to one
another; helps learner get a unified view of reality and
outlook in life
5. Continuity – continuing application of KSAV; constant
repetition, review and reinforcement of learning
 Component 3 –
linkage between instructional strategies
and methods to curriculum experiences,
the core or the heart of the curriculum
- action the goals and use the contents in
Component 3 to produce an outcome!
- teaching strategies convert the written
curriculum to instruction
-the actions are based on planned
objectives
-repertoire of teaching
 1.Teaching methods are used to translate the
Guide for the objectives into action
selection and 2. There is no single best teaching method. Its
effectiveness will depend on the learning
use of these objectives, the learners and skill of the teacher.
methods to 3. Stimulate learners desire to develop the 3
domains of objectives.
implement
4. Learning styles of the students should be
such considered.
curriculum: 5. Development of the learning outcomes
6. Flexibility
 Component 4 –
Worthen and Sanders (1987)
– all curricula to be effective must have the
element of evaluation
-formal determination of the quality,
Component 4 effectiveness or value of the program, process,
product of the curriculum
-Tuckman (1985) – meeting the goals and
matching them with the intended outcomes
- Stufflebeam‟s CIPP (Context, Input, Process,
Product) Model
 a. context – environment of the
curriculum; situation analysis
b. input – ingredients of the
curriculum which include the goals,
Component 4 instructional strategies, the learners,
the teachers, the contents and all the
materials needed.
c. process – how the curriculum has
been implemented; entire operation
of the curriculum
 d. product – if the curriculum accomplishes its goals;
to what extent; to what extent the curriculum
objectives has been achieved
***within the evaluation process, smaller and more
specific activities are needed to determine the
effectiveness of the curriculum
Component 4 ***These activities include
-assessment and measurement of learning outcomes
(ultimate product of a curriculum)
-diagnostic, placement, formative or summative
evaluation
-norm-referenced or criterion-referenced
 1. focus on one particular component of
the curriculum. e.g. subject area, grade
level, course, degree program, specific
Suggested steps objectives
for the process 2. collect or gather the information
of curriculum 3. organize the information
evaluation: 4. analyze the information
5. report the information
6. recycle the information
Curriculum 1. Behavioral approach – based on a
Approaches by blueprint (goals, objectives, contents,
curriculum activities are arranged to match with
practitioners the learning objectives) -Frederick
Taylor- aimed to achieve efficiency;
and begins with the educational plans…
implementers: (PIE)
 2. Managerial approach
*principal – curriculum leader /
Curriculum instructional leader who is supposed to be
Approaches by the general manager
curriculum *general manager – sets the policies and
priorities –establishes the direction of
practitioners change and innovation, and planning and
and organizing curriculum and instruction.
implementers: *school administrators – less concerned
about the content, methods and materials
than about organization and
implementation
 Some of the roles of the Curriculum
Supervisors (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004)
Curriculum a. help develop the school‟s education
Approaches by goals
curriculum b. plan curriculum with students, parents,
practitioners teachers and other stakeholders
and c. design program of study by grade levels
implementers: d. schedule classes or school calendar
e. prepare curriculum guides or teacher
guides
 f. evaluates or selects textbooks
Curriculum g. observes teachers
Approaches by
h. assist teachers in the
curriculum implementation of the curriculum
practitioners
i. encourage curriculum innovation
and and change j. develop standards for
implementers: curriculum and instructional
evaluation
 3. Systems approach – influenced by
systems theory -the parts of the total
school district or school are examined in
Curriculum terms of how they relate to each other -
Approaches by e.g. organizational chart (line-staff
relationship) - George Beauchamp –
curriculum systems theory of education
practitioners a. administration
and
b. counselling
implementers:
c. curriculum
d. instruction
e. evaluation
Curriculum 4. Humanistic Approach – rooted
Approaches by in the progressive philosophy and
curriculum child-centered movement -
practitioners considers the formal/planned
and curriculum and informal and
implementers: hidden curriculum
Curriculum Teaching (cause)-Learning (effect)
Approaches by Processes and Curriculum
curriculum Development -we always attribute the
practitioners kind (quality) of learning to the kind of
teaching -directly proportional
and (learning in teaching and teaching for
implementers: learning)
 - effective teaching brings about the intended
learning outcome
-organization of meaningful learning
-creating a situation or selecting life-like
Teaching as a situations to enhance learning TRADITIONAL
definitions:
Process in
-process of imparting knowledge and skills
Curriculum required to master a subject matter
-process of dispensing knowledge to an empty
vessel which is the mind of the learner
-showing, telling, giving instruction, making
someone understand in order to learn
 Progressivist/Humansist:
-perceived as stimulating, directing, guiding the
learner and evaluating the learning outcomes of
teaching

Teaching as a -enables the learner to learn on his/her own Teacher

now becomes a decision maker in the teaching process
Process in (PIE) or phases of teaching
Curriculum -a continuous process of feedback and reflection is
made
*feedback – the reflection of the feedback
*reflection – a process embedded in teaching where
the teacher inquires into his or her actions and
provides deep and critical thinking
 I. Planning phase - decision about
a. the needs of the learners
b. achievable goals and objectives to meet the needs

Teaching as a c. selection of the content to be taught

Process in d. motivation to carry out the goals

e. strategies most fit to carry out the goals
Curriculum f. evaluation process to measure learning outcomes
Teaching plans:
Short – daily plan
Long – unit plan or yearly plan
 II. Implementation phase
-actual teaching and experiencing of a
curriculum
Teaching as a -requires the teacher to implement what
Process in has been planned
Curriculum -to put into action the different activities
in order to achieve the objectives through
the subject matter
-interaction between the teacher and the
learner
 III. Evaluation phase
-a match of the objectives with the
learning outcomes will be made
Teaching as a -answer the question if the plans and
implementation have been successfully
Process in achieved
Curriculum
BASIC assumptions of TEACHING!
a. goal-oriented with the change behavior
as the ultimate end
b. rational and reflective process
 a. shape actively their own actions
b. influence learners to change their own
thinking or desired behavior, thus teaching
is way of changing behavior through the
Teaching as a intervention of the teacher and so…GOOD
Process in TEACHING is…
Curriculum a. well planned and where activities are
interrelated to each other
b. provides learning experiences or
situations that will ensure understanding,
application and critical thinking
 c. based on the theories of learning
d. learner is stimulated to think and
reason
e. utilizes prior learning and its
Teaching as a application to new situations
Process in f. governed by democratic principles
Curriculum g. embeds a sound evaluation process
Learning as a Process in Curriculum
-to teach is to make someone to learn
(the end product of teaching is
learning)
 -change in an individual‟s
behavior caused by experiences or
self-activity -most is/are
Learning by intentional (purposefully arranged
definition: for the students to participate and
experience - unintentional (e.g.
when a child touches a lighted
candle and feels it is hot)
 2 principal types of learning theories:
1. Behavioral learning theories –
observable and measurable
Learning by 2. Cognitive learning theories –
definition: concerned with human learning in
which unobservable mental processes
are used to learn and remember new
information or acquire skills e.g.
*discovery learning
 Jerome Bruner -curious, self-motivated
until they find answers to the problems
-construct their own knowledge
- self-learning that is flexible, exploratory
Learning by and independent *reception learning
definition: -David Ausubel -differs with Bruner
- they may not be able to know what is
important or relevant
-they need external motivation in order to
learn
 Similarities between Bruner and
Ausubel:
-learners should be actively involved
Learning by in their own learning
definition: - prior learning is important in order
to learn new things and because
knowledge continuously changes once
it is the learner‟s mind
 Events Of Learning (Robert Gagne)
1. motivation phase – learning will be rewarding
2. apprehending phase – attends or pays
attention
3. acquisition phase – learning transforms
Events Of information into meaningful form -the mental
Learning images formed associates the new information
with old information; advance organizers are
useful
4. retention phase – the newly acquired
information must be transferred from short-
term to longterm memory -may take place by
means of practice, elaboration or rehearsal
 5. recall phase- recall previous learned
information - to learn to gain access to
that which has been learned is a critical
phase in learning
Events Of 6. generalization phase – transfer of
Learning information to new situation allows
application of the learned information in
the context in which it was learned
7. feedback phase – students must receive
feedback on their performance - serve as
reinforcer for successful performance
 a. does not take place in an empty vessel…each
learner is assumed to have prior learning and
maybe able to connect these to present
learning
b. social process
Events Of c. result of individual experiences and self-
Learning activity
d. observable and measurable
e. all the senses are utilized
f. learner is stimulated, directed, guided and
feedback is immediately given
g. learner has his/her own learning styles
 Teaching and Learning Go Together
-one process cannot succeed without the success or
support of the other
-a teacher cannot claim she/he has taught if the
learners have not learned substantially
Events Of -the teaching styles of the teachers should jibe with
Learning the learners‟ learning styles
- knowledge of the learner and his learning styles be
considered
-as learners become complex individuals capable of
learning on their own, the repertoire of teaching
should also increase
 Some Ways of Doing Teaching and
Learning:
Large group- e.g. lecture, expository,
panel discussion, seminar, forum,
Events Of demonstration or a combination of
Learning lecture demonstration
Small group – e.g. role playing, buzz
session, workshop, process approach,
discovery learning, cooperative
learning in various forms, laboratory
methods
 Individualized learning – e.g. modular
instruction, e-teaching, programmed
instruction
Traditional time-tested methods - e.g. inductive
method, deductive method, type study
Events Of method, project method, laboratory method, Q
and A method or Socratic method, and lecture
Learning method Improved teaching practices- e.g.
integrative technique, discovery approaches,
process approach, conceptual approach,
mastery learning, programmed instruction, e-
learning, simulation, case-based teaching,
conceptual teaching, cooperative learning, and
others…
 1. Learning by TRIAL and ERROR
-related to stimulus-response theory of
learning
Ways of -oftentimes risky and time consuming
Learning: -easiest way of doing things without
necessarily anticipating a definite
objective
2. Learning by CONDITIONING (Pavlov,
Skinner) -training, drill, and practice
 3. Learning by INSIGHT
-a higher level of intelligence is utilized;
requires higher thinking skills
-looking into oneself with deeper thinking
Ways of -a sudden flash of idea or solution to a problem
sometimes called “aha” learning
Learning:
4. Learning by OBSERVATION and IMITATION
through MODELING (Bandura)
-one learns from someone; be able to do
similar thing
-“no-trial learning”
 a. Attentional phase – observes a model
b. Retention phase – copies, practice or
rehearse what has been observed
4 Phases: c. Reproduction phase –matches their
(ARRM) behavior to the model
d. Motivational phase – imitate the
behavior for getting a chance to be
reinforced by becoming like the one from
whom the behavior was copied
 Teaching and Learning in the
Curriculum
-how the student should learn
Teaching and how to learn
Learning in the -a challenge to both teaching and
Curriculum learning
-life and meaning (each
complement and supplement each
other)