Chapter#05

Flow of Air Through Ducts and Mine openings

Introduction:
 Quantity control:
 The control of air movement, its direction and its magnitude is
termed quantity control.
 Ventilation:
 The principal air conditioning process concerned with control of
air circulation.

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Flow of Air Through Ducts and Mine openings
 Purpose:
 Supply enough air for human and product needs.
 For comfort airconditioning—20 cfm per man
 This requirement multiplies for various other reasons.
 Other functions served by ventilation are control of gases,
dusts, heat and moisture.
 Thus ventilation requirements may reach up to 200 cfm
per man and occasionally 2000 cfm per man.

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 Energy Change in Fluid Flow:

General Energy Equation:

 Steady flow process;
 One in which the fluid is continually in motion in a linear
direction through a conduit
 Transition and losses are involved in such a process.
 Energy changes are basic to the calculation of the mine
quantity and of head.

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 The total energy at any section in a moving fluid consist of
the sum of the internal static, velocity, and potential
energies at that section
 Total energy1= (total energy)2 + (flow energy losses)1-2 --------- 5.1

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Energy Change in Fluid Flow

5
Energy Change in fluid flow

6
Chapter#05
Flow of Air Through Ducts and Mine openings
Total energy at section 1 and 2 will be

This equation is called Bernoulli's equation.
Where is static energy, is velocity energy, Z is potential energy and HL is flow loss
The general energy equation and Bernoulli equation in term of heads


 + …………………………….5.4
 Where
 Hs is static head,
Hv is velocity head, and
Hz is elevation head or potential head
HL is flow loss
All head have the unit of in. water

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Energy Change in Fluid Flow
Modified Energy Equation:
 The elevation HZ can complicate the calculation in mine
ventilation because of sizable difference in elevation
 For example an elevation difference of 70 ft. is equivalent to

 Thus increase of 70ft in elevation will increase HZ by 1 in.

 Correspondingly the static head will decreases by 1 in.

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 Modified Energy Equation :

Example:
Straight duct placed first in horizontal and then in vertical
position.
let the head loss HL between point 1 and 2 equal 3 in,
1 atm= 407 in of water
Other data: For horizontal position
HS1=4 in, HV1= 1 in. , HZ1=0
• HS2= 1 in. , HV2= 1 in., HZ2= 0

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 70 ft. Hs2=1’
Hs1=4’
Hv2=1’
Hv1=1’
Hz2=0
Hz1=0’
HL=3’

Hs2=1’
Hv2=1’
Hz2=1
HL=3’
Atm.pre.=407”

70 ft.

Hs1=4’
Hv1=1’
Hz1=0
Atm.pre.408”

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Flow of Air Through Ducts and Mine openings

 Putting the above data in general energy equation.

 (4 + 407) + 1+0= (1+407) +1+0+3.
 412=412 ( using the absolute pressure)
 Using gage pressure the equation becomes
 4+1+0 = 1+1+0+3
 5=5

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Chapter#05
Flow of Air Through Ducts and Mine openings
 Given data for duct in vertical position
 HS1=4 in, HV1= 1in, HZ1=0
 HS2= 1in, HV2= 1in, HZ2= 1
 Putting the above data in general energy equation so we get (using the absolute
pressure)
 (4 + 408) + 1+0= (1+407) +1+1+3
 413=413
 Now using gage pressure
 4+1+0 = 1+1+1+3
5 ≠ 6
 Omit the HZ term from all calculation and employ a gage pressure basis, then for
horizontal and vertical position of duct both will give the same value
 4+1 = 1+1+3
5 = 5

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Chapter#05
Flow of Air Through Ducts and Mine openings
5.3: Head losses and Mine Heads:
 Head losses in fluid flow:
 Energy which is supplied to a steady flow process by either natural or
mechanical means and creates pressure difference,
 is consumed in overcoming flow losses, represented by HL
 Flow occurs due to pressure difference
 Head losses have two components
1. Friction losses (Hf):
 it represent head losses in linear flow through ducts of constant area.
2. Shock losses (Hx):
 results from change in direction of flow or area of ducts.
o HL = Hf + Hx

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Head losses and Mine Heads:
 Shock losses also occur at
 Inlets,
 discharge,
 splits, junctions of two or more air currents and
 obstructions at airways.
 Losses both friction and shock cause corresponding decrease in static
head of the fluid.
 If losses occur only due to change in area
 Some velocity is converted into static head( if the area increases). Or
 Static head into velocity head (if area decreases).

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Chapter#05
Flow of Air Through Ducts and Mine openings
Over all or mine heads:
 In many situations, it is necessary to sum all the various flow energy
losses to determine the amount of head that must be supplied to
overcome the losses and produce a desired flow
 The cumulative energy consumption are termed as mine heads
 Mine static head
 it represent the energy consumed in the ventilation system to overcome all flow
losses
 ……………….. 5.7
 Mine velocity head
 Mine velocity head (mine //„) is taken as the velocity head at the discharge of
the system
 Should be counted as head loss because the energy is lost at the discharge.
 ………………………..5.2

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Over all or mine heads:

 Mine total heads

 It is sum of all losses in mine ventilation system

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State of Air Flow in Mine Openings

In fluid mechanics, two distinct states of fluid flow with a

transitional zone between are recognized.
1. Laminar flow
2. Intermediate flow
3. Turbulent flow
 Identification of the state of flow is necessary while
calculating in fluid flow.
 Because the fluid exhibits different characteristics and
head losses in each state.

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State of Air Flow in Mine Openings

 Criteria for identifying the boundaries between State of Air

flow is Reynolds Number NRe.
 Laminar flow exists up to NRe=2000
 Turbulant flow above 4000
 These boundaries are approximate and the region between
them is intermediate.
 Reynolds number is a function of the fluid properties.

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State of Air Flow in Mine Openings
 ………………5.9

 Where is mass fluid density( (lb-sec2/ft4),

 is kinematic viscosity(c),
 µ is absolute viscosity(2),
 is diameter of conduit in ft,
 is velocity in

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State of Air Flow in Mine Openings
 For air= 1.610-4 ft2/sec
 Putting values in equation 5-9
 …….5-10
 If NRe=4000 (lower boundary of turbulent flow)
 The velocity is called critical velocity Vc.
 If the fluid velocity exceeds Vc, then flow is always
turbulent.

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State of Air Flow in Mine Openings
 Solving for in and Setting =4000

 (approximately) ……….5.11
 In mining turbulent flow is desirable.
 This ensures satisfactory dispersion and removal of contaminants.
 For a pipe having 1 ft. diameter will have a critical velocity of 40 fpm.
 Mine openings of 3 ft. diameter will have a velocity of 13 fpm and will
be a turbulent flow.

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Effect of state of flow on velocity
distribution
• Velocity in a conduit varies as the Reynolds
number varies (Fig.5-9).

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Effect of state of flow on velocity
distribution
• Maximum velocity x occurs at the center of the conduit.
• In ventilation the concern is avg. velocity and not the
maximum velocity.
• The variation of with is determined as a function of
Reynolds number (fig.5-10).
• This graph enables one to find the avg. Velocity when only
one measurement along the center line has been made.

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Effect of state of flow on velocity distribution
However since,
 Mine opening are non circular
 And many irregularities of the walls tend to produce
non- symmetrical flow pattern
 The Reynolds number generally exceed 10,000
Approximate value is taken.
 i.e. .

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Calculation of head losses
o Velocity head:
 Velocity head represents energy which has to be
supplied to maintain flow.
 It is lost to the system at discharge.
 It must be taken at the discharge to calculate the
mine heads.
 Measurement of velocity head permit to calculate
velocity of air flow.

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Velocity head
 Derivation of equation:
 Starting with basic relation,

 Where is in fps and is in ft of fluid.

 Applying equation 2-1

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Velocity head
 ……. 5.13
 Where is in fpm and in inches of water.
 For standard air at sea level

 It states that velocity of 4000 fpm is equivalent to 1 inch of

water.

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Atkinson Equation for Friction losses

Friction Loss
 Friction losses constitutes 70 -90 % of the total losses.
 These are of greater importance than shock losses
 Deserves more care.
Atkinson Equation for Friction Loss
 As a loss in static pressure that occurs in flow as a result of the drag or
resistance of the walls of the opening or duct and the internal friction of the
fluid itself
 Occur in linear flow due to dragging action between walls of the opening and
fluid itself.
Friction loss in a mine is a function of
1. Velocity of flow
2. Interior surface characteristics of the conduit.
3. Dimensions of the conduit.

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Atkinson Equation for Friction losses

In mine ventilation systems the flow is always

turbulent.
The fluid mechanics (Darcy-Weisbach) equation for
calculating friction loss in any circular conduit is
 ……………………………….5-15
Where HL is head loss in ft of fluid,
L is length in ft.
D is diameter in ft.
V is velocity in fps.
f is coefficient of friction

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Atkinson Equation for Friction losses

Hydraulic radius RH is the ratio of the area to the perimeter

of the duct.

For circular duct

Putting values
 ………………..5-16


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Atkinson Equation for Friction losses

Substituting equation 5-16 in equation 5-15

From this version the Atkinson equation for mine ventilation can
be derived as

Where =friction loss in inches of water.

is the velocity in fpm)
 is an empirical friction factor in

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This equation can also be written as;
---5.19
Where (rubbing surface) =
If quantity of air is known then
Equation can be written as
---5.20

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The friction factor K in mine ventilation corresponds
to the coefficient of friction f in general fluid flow.
Mathematically
---5-21

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Determination of Airway Friction Factor
The only accurate way to determine the friction factor
for a given airway is to calculate it by equation from a
pressure drop, measured underground.

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Determination of Airway Friction Factor
Tables 5-1 list values of K based on standard air
density. Since K is proportional to , correct K for actual
by formula
---5-22
before using Eqs. 5-18 to 5-20
Select K carefully for the conditions (rock type,
straightness, cleanliness, irregularities etc.) prevalent
in the airway.

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Determination of Airway Friction Factor
 If the airway is timbered and sets are spaced on other than 5 ft. centers,
modify K according to .
 If roof bolting is used in place of timbering, assume an unlined airway.

Example 5-3. Select the friction factor for a highly sinuous, slightly
obstructed drift in igneous rock.
Solution: From table 5-1, read for minimum to maximum irregularities. If
no other information is available, and assuming standard air density,
use average value K = 175 x 10-10

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Example 5-4. Select the friction factor for a straight,
clean, unlined entry in coal, if = 0.065 lb./ft3.

Solution: From table 6-2, read K = 43 x 10-10 lb.min2 /ft4

Corrected

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Determination of Friction Factor for Vent Pipe
Friction Factor to use with different types of
ventilation pipe or tubing vary with the material and
its condition.
The following are satisfactory for routine calculations
(based on ω = 0.075 lb./ft3 )

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 Friction Factor, K x 10-10 lb.min2 /ft4 (kg / m3 )

Pipe or Tubing Good, New Average, Used

Steel, wood, fiberglass 15 (0.0028) 20 (0.0037)

(rigid)

Jute, canvas, plastic 20 (0.0037) 25 (0.0046)

(flexible)

Spiral-type canvas 22.5 (0.0042) 27.5 (0.0051)

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 Friction Factor K for Coal Mine Airways and Openings

Value of K
x 10-10

Straight Curved

e of clean Slightly Moderately Clean Slightly Moderatel

ay obstructed obstructed obstructed obstructed

oth 25 28 34 31 30 43
d

ned 43 49 61 62 68 74
k
ed)

bered 67 75 82 85 87 90

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Calculation of Friction Loss by Formula
 Friction Loss in a mine duct or airway can be calculated by eq:

And

A separate calculation is necessary for each airway of

 different characteristics ( K) or
 cross-sectional dimensions (A, P) and
 for each different airflow (V or Q).

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For different airflows in a given airway,
 solve separately and
 multiply by .
For different airway lengths or friction factors,
 multiply Hf by the ratio of lengths or friction factors,
respectively.
Example 5-5 Determine the friction loss in a mine airway, by
formula under the following conditions: unlined airway in
coal, curved, moderately obstructed. , .

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Solution: Using equation 5-20
Select

Example 5-6. Determine the friction loss in mine vent tubing,

by formula under following conditions; jute vent tubing,
average condition;

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Solution: Using Equation

=
=

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Shock Loss
Shock loss occur in addition to friction losses
These losses are caused by changing the direction of air
flow or the area of the duct.
Obstruction cause shock loss by in effect reducing the
duct area.
While generally constituting only of the total head loss in
mine ventilation systems, shock losses should always be
considered in exact calculations in major airways or in
short length of duct with many bends or area changes.

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Calculation of Sock Loss
Calculation of shock loss can be carried out in several ways.

The amount of shock loss in in water can be calculated

from the velocity head

Where is shock-loss factor.

This factor roughly comparable to the friction factor in
friction loss.
Constant only for a given constant set of conditions.

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Calculation of Sock Loss

Either a calculated or estimated increment in the

friction factor K may be applied to allow for shock
losses in each airway in a mine ventilation system.
Table 5-1 includes several allowances for shock loss;
i.e. curvature, obstruction and timber sets.
Judgment of appropriate value of K is necessary for
accurate calculations.

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Calculation of shock loss by equivalent-
length method.
Most useful in mine ventilation.
Expresses each loss in terms of equivalent length of
straight airway.
Increment in airway is determined similar to that of
increment in K.
Equating equations 5-18 and 5-24.

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Calculation of shock loss by equivalent-length
method.
•
• Simplifying and solving for L but using Le instead of L
• ------5-25
• Shock loss factor and their equivalent lengths are given
appendix A-3
• Some of the valves are given in table 5-2
• These values are based on an airway of

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Equivalent Length for various sources of shock
loss, in ft.
Bend, acute, round 3 Contraction, gradual 1

Bend, acute, sharp 150 Contraction, abrupt 10

Bend, right, round 1 Expansion, gradual 1

Bend, right, sharp 70 Expansion. Sharp 20

Bend, obtuse, round 0.5 Splitting, straight branch 30

Bend, obtuse, sharp 15 Splitting, deflected branch 200

(90o)
Doorway 70 Junction, straight branch 60

Overcast 65 Junction, deflected branch 30

(90o)
Entrance 3 Mine car or skip 100
( 20% of airway)
Discharge 65 Mine car or skip 500
( 40% of airway)

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Calculation of shock loss by equivalent-length
method.
Options for calculation of shock:
1. Values of Le from table 5-2 need not to be corrected for K
or RH.
2. With a change in area, include the shock loss following
the change. This also applies to bend in conjunction with
area change. Discharge is excluded.
3. At splits and junction in airway, use only the portion of
the total flow involved in a change of direction or area.
4. Include loss at split or junction with in the pressure drop
for the particular branch.

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Combined Friction and Shock losses
 The equivalent length method permits a single calculation
of the overall head losses.
 Rewriting eq.5-20

 This procedure is recommended for all routine ventilation

calculations selecting Le from table 5-2.

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Example 5-7
Calculate the combined friction-shock loss for each airways
shown in fig.5-15, and determine the head losses for the
system (=mine Static head).Given the following
characteristics ( with dimensions as tabulated below).

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Fig.5-15: Mine ventilation system in
example 5-7


I
A

F E
H C
Gradual expansion
G D
Abrupt contraction

Gradual contraction

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Solution:
Select equivalent length from table5-2.
Compute head loss by equation 5-26.
A single calculation for airway having the same dimensions
is sufficient.
Sample calculation for , AB and HI:

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Airway Size, ft L , ft Le, ft L + Le , A , sft P, ft HL
ft
AB 10x20 810 None * 200 60 *

BC 8x8 800 (b+c )

3+1 =4
CD 8x8 350 (b) 15 1169 64 32 0.137

DE 5x7 100 (b + c)
70 +10
=80
EF 5x7 250 (b) 70

FG 5x7 100 (b) 70

GH 5x7 400 (b) 70 1140 35 24 0.608

HI 10x20 800 (b+e+d) 1677 200 60 0.012

1+1+65=
67

b=bend ,c=contraction , d=discharge , e=expansion

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Air horse power
 Power:
 The time rate of doing work.
 Power to overcome the energy losses in an air stream, is called the air
horse power Pa.

 If total head is desired then the H should be total Head Ht.

 If mine static head Hs is used the air static air horse power is
obtained.

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