LIMIT,FITS AND TOLERANCES

Limit:
Permissible variation from the required dimension is called
limits
Upper limit: Max. permissible variation is called as upper limit
Lower limit: Min. permissible variation is called as lower limit
Tolerance: Diff. between the upper and lower limit.
If the tolerance is allowed on one side of the nominal size
then it is uni- lateral tolerance
If the tolerance is allowed on both side of the nominal size then it is bi-
lateral tolerance
UNI AND BI LATERAL TOLERANCE
 FITS
The degree of tightness or looseness between the two mating parts is
known as a fit of the parts
Types of Fits
1. Clearance fit. In clearance fit, the tolerance zone of the hole is
entirely above the tolerance zone of the shaft.
In a clearance fit, the difference between the minimum size of the
hole and the maximum size of the shaft is known as minimum
clearance whereas the difference between the maximum size of
thehole and minimum size of the shaft is called maximum clearance
Clearance fit.
 Interference fit
• The interference is the amount by which the actual size of a shaft is
larger than the actual size of the mating hole
• In an interference fit, the difference between the maximum size of
the hole and the minimum size of the shaft is known as minimum
interference, whereas the difference between the minimum size of
the hole and the maximum size of the shaft is called maximum
interference
Interference fit
 Transition fit
Transition fit. In this type of fit, the size limits for the mating parts
are so selected that either clearance or interference may occur
depending upon the actual size of the mating parts, as shown in
transition fit, the tolerance zones of hole and shaft overlap.
The transition fits may be force fit, tight fit and push fit
Transition fit
 Basis of Limit System

1. Hole basis system. When the hole is kept as a constant member (i.e.
when the lower deviationof the hole is zero) and different fits are
obtained by varying the shaft size then the limit system is said to be
on a hole basis.
• 2. Shaft basis system. When the shaft is kept as a constant member
(i.e. when the upper deviation of the shaft is zero) and different fits
are obtained by varying the hole size,then the limit system is said to
be on a shaft basis.
 PROBLEM IN STRESSES

A coil chain of a crane required to carry a maximum load of 50 kN, is shown in Fig
Find the diameter of the link stock, if the permissible tensile stress in the link material is not to
exceed 75 MPa.

Solution. Given : P = 50 kN = 50 × 103 N ; σt = 75 MPa = 75 N/mm2

Let d = Diameter of the link stock in mm.
∴ Area, A =3.14/4× d2 = 0.7854 d 2
We know that the maximum load (P),
50 × 103 = σ. A = 75 × 0.7854 d2 = 58.9 d2
d 2 = 50 × 103 / 58.9 = 850 or d = 29.13 say 30 mm Ans.
 PROBLEM 2
A hydraulic press exerts a total load of 3.5 MN. This load is carried
by two steel rods, supporting the upper head of the press. If the safe
stress is 85 MPa and E = 210 kN/mm2,find : 1. diameter of the rods,
and 2. extension in each rod in a length of 2.5 m
 PROBLEM 3
• A cast iron link, as shown in Fig. is required to transmit a steady tensile load of 45 kN. Find the tensile stress
induced in the link material at sections A-A and B-B
 PROBLEM 4
A rectangular base plate is fixed at each of its four corners by a 20 mm diameter bolt and nut as shown in Fig.
The plate rests on washers of 22 mm internal diameter and 50 mm external diameter. Copper washers which
are placed between the nut and the plate are of 22 mm internal diameter and 44 mm external diameter. If the
base plate carries a load of 120 kN (including self-weight, which is equally distributed on the four corners),
calculate the stress on the lower washers before the nuts are tightened.What could be the stress in the upper and
lower washers, when the nuts are tightened so as to produce a tension of 5 kN on each bolt?
 Three Modes Of Failure

(i) Failure by elastic deflection;

(ii) (ii) Failure by general yielding; and
(iii) Failure by fracture.
 FACTOR OF SAFETY

It is necessary to provide sufficient reserve strength in case of an accident. This is achieved by taking a suitable
factor of safety (fs).

•The factor of safety is defined as

( fs) = failure stress/allowable stress
or (fs ) = failure load/working load

Factor of safety for brittle 3 to 5

Factor of safety for ductile material 1.5 to 2
Factor of safety for ductile material subjected to external fluctuating load 1.3 to 1.5
Factor of safety for the component subject to buckling load 3 to 6
 STRAIN

According to Hooke’s law, the stress is directly proportional to the strain within elastic limit.
Therefore,
SHEAR STRESS AND SHEAR STRAIN
 SHEAR STRESS AND SHEAR STRAIN
Calculate the force required to punch a circular blank of 60 mm diameter in a plate of 5 mm thick. The
ultimate shear stress of the plate is 350 N/mm2.

A pull of 80 kN is transmitted from a bar X to the bar Y through a pin as shown in Fig. If the maximum
permissible tensile stress in the bars is 100 N/mm2 and the permissible shear stress in the pin is 80 N/mm 2,
find the diameter of bars and of the pin.
 Bearing Stress

A localized compressive stress at the surface of contact between two members of a machine part, that are
relatively at rest is known as bearing stress or crushing stress. The bearing stress is taken into account in the
design of riveted joints, cotter joints, knuckle joints,
JOURNAL SUPPORTED IN A BEARING
The average bearing pressure for a journal supported in a bearing is given by pb =P/l d

•where pb = Average bearing pressure,

•P = Radial load on the journal,
•l = Length of the journal in contact, and
•d = Diameter of the journal.
Two plates 16 mm thick are joined by a double riveted lap joint as shown in Fig. The rivets are 25 mm in
diameter. Find the crushing stress induced between the plates and the rivet, if the maximum tensile load on the
joint is 48 kN.
 PROBLEM 9
A central steel rod 18 mm diameter passes through a copper tube 24 mm inside and 40 mm outside diameter, as
shown in Fig. 4.15. It is provided with nuts and washers at each end.The nuts are tightened until a stress of 10
MPa is set up in the steel. The whole assembly is then placed in a lathe and turned along half the length of the
tube removing the copper to a depth of 1.5 mm. Calculate the stress now existing in the steel. Take Es = 2Ec.
 PROBLEM 10
Two plates, subjected to a tensile force of 50 kN, are fixed together by means of three rivets as shown in Fig.
The plates and rivets are made of plain carbon steel 10C4 with a tensile yield strength of 250 N/mm2. The yield
strength in shear is 50% of the tensile yield strength, and the factor of safety is 2.5. Neglecting stress
concentration, determine (i) the diameter of the rivets; and (ii) the thickness of the plates.
• P = 50 x 103 N Syt = 250 N/mm2
• (fs) = 2.5
THERMAL STRESSES
 POISSION RATIO

If Poisson's ratio is zero, then material is rigid.

A perfectly incompressible isotropic material deformed elastically
at small strains would have a Poisson's ratio of exactly 0.5.
Rubber has one of the highest values of Poisson's ratio at
0.4999
Cork is measured to have a Poisson's ratio of close to zero
 PROBLEM-11
• A mild steel rod supports a tensile load of 50 kN. If the stress in the rod islimited to 100 MPa, find the size of
the rod when the cross-section is 1. circular, 2. square, and 3. rectangular with width = 3 × thickness.

•
 PROBLEM-12
A steel bar 2.4 m long and 30 mm square is elongated by a load of 500 kN. If poisson's ratio is 0.25, find the
increase in volume. Take E = 0.2 × 106 N/mm2.
 Impact Stress
The stress produced in the member due to the falling
load is known as impact stress.

When h = 0, then σi = 2W/A. This means that the stress in the bar when the load in
applied suddenly is double of the stress induced due to gradually applied load.
 PROBLEM13
An unknown weight falls through 10 mm on a collar rigidly attached to the lower end of a vertical bar 3 m long
and 600 mm2 in section. If the maximum instantaneous extension is known to be 2 mm, what is the
corresponding stress
and the value of unknown weight? TakeE = 200 kN/mm2.
 Resilience
The strain energy stored in a body due to external loading, within elastic limit, is known as resilience
The maximum energy which can be stored in a body up to the elastic limit is called proof resilience.
The proof resilience per unit volume of a material is known as modulus of resilience.
It is an important property of a material and gives capacity of the material to bear impact or shocks

strain energy stored in a body due to tensile or compressive load or resilience,

PROBLEM 14
A shaft, as shown in Fig, is subjected to a bending load of 3 kN, pure torque of 1000 N-m and an axial
pulling force of 15 kN. Calculate the stresses at A and B.
• A hollow shaft of 40 mm outer diameter and 25 mm inner diameter is subjected to a twisting moment of 120
N-m, simultaneously, it is subjected to an axial thrust of 10 kN and a
• bending moment of 80 N-m. Calculate the maximum compressive and shear stresses
WHY THEORIES OF FAILURE ARE
USED
Theories of failure are those theories which help us to
determine the safe dimensions of a machine component when it
is subjected to combined stresses due to various loads acting on
it during its functionality
 Theories of Failure

Maximum principal (or normal) stress theory (also known as Rankine’s theory).
Maximum shear stress theory (also known as Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).
Maximum principal (or normal) strain theory (also known as Saint Venant theory).
Maximum strain energy theory (also known as Haigh’s theory).
Maximum distortion energy theory (also known as Hencky and Von Mises theory).
 MORE CONSERVATIVE THEORIES
• the Tresca is the most conservative for all materials, the von
Mises the most representative for ductile materials, and
the Rankine the best fit for brittle materials
 Maximum Principal or Normal Stress Theory (Rankine’s Theory)

According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum
principal or normal stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting strength of the material in a
simple tension test.Since the limiting strength for ductile materials is yield point stress and for brittle
materials (which do not have well defined yield point) the limiting strength is ultimate stress,

the maximum principal or normal stress theory is based on failure in tension or compression
and ignores the possibility of failure due to shearing stress, therefore it is not used for ductile materials.
Brittle materials which are relatively strong in shear but weak in tension or compression,this theory is
generally used.
 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Guest’s or Tresca’s Theory)

This theory is mostly used for designing members of ductile materials.

Maximum Principal Strain Theory (Saint Venant’s Theory)

This theory is not used, in general

 Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Haigh’s Theory)

This theory may be used for ductile materials.

 Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (Hencky and Von Mises Theory)

This theory is mostly used for ductile materials in place of maximum strain energy
theory.
The maximum distortion energy is the difference between the total strain energy and the strain
energy dueto uniform stress.
 PROBLEM
The load on a bolt consists of an axial pull of 10 kN together with a transverse
shear force of 5 kN. Find the diameter of bolt required according to
1. Maximum principal stress theory; 2. Maximum shear stress theory; 3. Maximum principal
strain theory; 4. Maximum strain energy theory; and 5. Maximum distortion energy theory.
Take permissible tensile stress at elastic limit = 100 MPa and poisson’s ratio = 0.3.
• A cylindrical shaft made of steel of yield strength 700 MPa is subjected to static loads consisting
of bending moment 10 kN-m and a torsional moment 30 kN-m. Determine the diameter of the shaft
using theories of failure, and assuming a factor of safety of 2. Take E = 210 GPa and poisson's
ratio = 0.25.
 VARIABLE OR FLUCTUATING OR
DYNAMIC OR FATIGUE LOAD AND
STRESSES
In DOM we are using the following elementary equan
REDUCTION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION
 PROBLEMS
• Find the maximum stress induced in the following cases taking stress concentration into account:
1. A rectangular plate 60 mm × 10 mm with a hole 12 diameter as shown in Fig.(a) and subjected
to a tensile load of 12 kN.
2. A stepped shaft as shown in Fig. (b) and carrying a tensile load of 12 kN.
A fl at plate subjected to a tensile force of 5 kN is shown in Fig. The plate material is grey cast iron FG 200
and the factor of safety is 2.5. Determine the thickness of the plate
Fluctuating or alternating stress varies in a sinusoidal manner with respect to time. It has some mean value as
well as amplitude value. It fluctuates between two limits—maximum and minimum stress. The stress can be
tensile or compressive or partly tensile and partly compressive.

The repeated stress varies in a sinusoidal manner with respect to time, but the variation is from zero to some
maximum value. The minimum stress is zero in this case and therefore, amplitude stress and mean stress are
equal.
The reversed stress varies in a sinusoidal manner with respect to time, but it has zero mean stress. In this
case, half portion of the cycle consists of tensile stress and the remaining half of compressive stress. There
is a complete reversal from tension to compression between these two halves and therefore, the mean
stress is zero
STRESS RATIO
 ENDURANCE LIMIT

The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum amplitude of completely
reversed stress that the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited number of cycles without
fatigue failure.
Fatigue test cannot be conducted for unlimited or infinite number of cycles, 106 cycles is considered
as a sufficient number of cycles to define the endurance limit. There is another term called fatigue
life.

The results of these tests are plotted by means of an S–N curve. The S–N curve is the graphical representation
of stress amplitude (Sf ) versus the number of stress cycles (N) before the fatigue failure on a log-log graph
paper
• The complete S–N curve from 100 cycle to 108 cycles is shown in Fig
 LOW AND HIGH CYCLE FATIGUE
• There are two regions of this curve namely, low-cycle fatigue and high-cycle fatigue.The difference between
these two fatigue failure is
Any fatigue failure when the number of stress cycles are less than 1000, is called low-cycle fatigue. Any fatigue
failure when the number of stress cycles are more than 1000, is called high-cycle fatigue.

Failure of studs on truck wheels, failure of setscrews for locating gears on shafts or failures of short-lived
devices such as missiles are the examples of low-cycle fatigue.
The failure of machine components such as springs, ball bearings or gears that are subjected to fluctuating
stresses, are the examples of high-cycle fatigue.
when the number of stress cycles are less than 1000 no need to consider its effect while designing a machine
components. A greater factor of safety is used to account for this effect. Such components are designed on the
basis of ultimate tensile strength or yield strength with a suitable factor of safety
Components subjected to high-cycle fatigue are designed on the basis of endurance limit stress. S–N curves,
Soderberg lines, Gerber lines or Goodman diagrams are used in the design of such components
The actual reduction in the endurance limit of a material due to stress concentration is less than the amount
indicated by the theoretical stress concentration factor Kt.
Therefore, two separate notations, Kt and Kf, are used for stress concentration factors.
Kt is the theoretical stress concentration factor, which is applicable to ideal materials that are homogeneous,
isotropic and elastic.
Kf is the fatigue stress concentration factor,

This factor Kf is applicable to actual materials and depends upon the grain size of the material.It is observed that
there is a greater reduction in the endurance limit of fine-grained materials as compared to coarse-grained
materials, due to stress concentration.
 NOTCH SENSITIVITY

Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility of a material to succumb to the damaging effects of stress
raising notches in fatigue loading. The notch sensitivity factor q is defined as

In general, the magnitude of the notch sensitivity

factor q varies from 0 to 1.
 Effect of Loading on Endurance Limit—Load Factor

The endurance limit (σe) of a material as determined by the rotating beam method is for reversed bending load.
There are many machine members which are subjected to loads other than reversed bending loads. Thus the
endurance limit will also be different for different types of loading. The endurance limit depending upon the
type of loading
Effect of Surface Finish on Endurance Limit—Surface Finish
Factor

The surface finish factor for non-ferrous metals may be taken as

unity.
 Effect of Size on Endurance Limit—Size Factor

If the size of the standard specimen is increased, then the endurance limit of the material will decrease. This is
due to the fact that a longer specimen will have more defects than a smaller one

•The value of size factor is taken as unity for the standard specimen having nominal diameter of 7.657 mm.
When the nominal diameter of the specimen is more than 7.657 mm but less than 50 mm, the value of size
factor may be taken as 0.85.
When the nominal diameter of the specimen is more than 50 mm, then the value of size factor may be
taken as 0.75.
 Effect of Miscellaneous Factors on
Endurance Limit

In addition to the surface finish factor (Ksur), size factor (Ksz) and load factors Kb, Ka and Ks, there
are many other factors such as reliability factor (Kr), temperature factor (Kt), impact factor (Ki) etc. which
has effect on the endurance limit of a material. Considering all these factors, the endurance limit may be
determined by using the following expressions
Relation Between Endurance Limit and Ultimate Tensile Strength
 Factor of Safety for Fatigue Loading

• When a component is subjected to fatigue loading, the endurance limit is the criterion for failure.Therefore,
the factor of safety should be based on endurance limit. Mathematically,
Factor of safety (F.S.) =Endurance limit stress/Design or working stress

Relation Between Endurance Limit and Yeild Strength

 PROBLEM
Determine the design stress for a piston rod where the load is completely reversed. The surface of the rod is
ground and the surface finish factor is 0.9. There is no stress concentration. The load is predictable and the
factor of safety is 2.